1

1



SURVEY OF OLD-GROWTH FORESTS IN NORTH-WEST RUSSIA

OTSO OVASKAINEN (EDITOR)










FINNISH NATURE LEAGUE PUBLICATIONS 1/1998





















Finnish Nature League Publications 1/1998
Luonto-Liiton julkaisuja 1/1998
(c) Otso Ovaskainen / Finnish Nature League




Cover Photo: A view to the east of Lunas Fjell (PaanajŠrvi area).
(c) Matti Pellinen


The Old-growth Forest Survey Project has been financially supported
by the Finnish Ministry of  the Environment.


The Haahtela Company has supported the publication of this report.


Printed on recycled paper by Laserpaino.







Finnish Nature League
PL 226 (PerŠmiehenkatu 11 A 17)
00151 Helsinki
Finland
phone +358 9 630 300
fax. +358 9 630 414
http://forest.sll.fi/ll
e-mail otso@sll.fi
CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION   6
2. METHODS   7
2.1. TRANSECTS FOR HABITAT DISTRIBUTION   7
2.1.1. THE LENGTH OF THE HABITAT UNIT   8
2.1.2. FOREST AND PEATLAND SITE TYPES   8
2.1.3. FOREST TYPE   9
2.1.4. INDICATOR SPECIES   10
2.1.5. HUMAN INFLUENCE   11
2.2. TRANSECTS FOR DECAYING TREE DISTRIBUTION   12
2.3. THREATENED SPECIES   13
3. PAANAJ€RVI   14
3.1 THE AREA   14
3.2.  GENERAL FEATURES   14
3.2.1. LANDSCAPE AND SOIL   14
3.2.2. CLIMATE   14
3.2.3. VEGETATION   14
3.2.4. HISTORY OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT   15
3.2.5. SIGNIFICANCE FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH   15
3.2.6. CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE   15
3.3. THE AREA SURVEYED IN SUMMER 1997   16
3.3.1. FORESTS   16
3.3.2. DECAYING WOOD   17
3.3.3. PEATLANDS   19
3.3.4. WATER SYSTEMS   20
3.3.5. HUMAN INFLUENCE   20
3.3.6. SPECIES   20
3.3.7. THE NATURE CONSERVATIONAL VALUE OF THE AREA   22
3.4. SUBAREA I: RIVER KUVZDENSA (by Otso Ovaskainen)   23
3.4.1. GENERAL FEATURES   23
3.4.3. PEATLANDS   25
3.4.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   25
3.5. SUBAREA II: FJELL LUNAS (by Otto Miettinen)   26
3.5.2. FORESTS   26
3.5.3. PEATLANDS   28
3.5.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   28
3.6. SUBAREA III: RIVER LEVSUS (by Otso Ovaskainen and
Marjatta Sihvonen)   28
3.6.1. GENERAL FEATURES   28
3.6.2. FORESTS   29
3.6.3. PEATLANDS   30
3.6.4 HUMAN INFLUENCE   32
3. 7. SUBAREA IV: LAKE TSIPRINGA (by Jouni Nissinen)   32
3.7.1. GENERAL FEATURES   32
3.7.2. FORESTS   33
3.7.3. PEATLANDS   34
3.7.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   34
3.8. SUBAREA V: RIVER TAVA (by Susanna Anttila)   35
3.8.1. GENERAL FEATURES   35
3.8.2. FORESTS   35
3.8.3. PEATLANDS   37
3.8.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   37
4. VIENA KARELIA   38
4.1 THE AREA   38
4.2. GENERAL FEATURES   38
4.2.1. LANDSCAPE AND SOIL   38
4.2.2. CLIMATE   38
4.2.3. VEGETATION   39
4.2.4. HISTORY OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT   39
4.2.5. SIGNIFICANCE FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH   40
4.2.6. CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE   40
4.3. THE AREA SURVEYED IN SUMMER 1997   40
4.3.1. FORESTS   41
4.3.2. DECAYING WOOD   42
4.3.3. PEATLANDS   44
4.3.4. WATER SYSTEMS   44
4.3.5. HUMAN INFLUENCE   44
4.3.6. SPECIES   45
4.3.7. THE NATURE CONSERVATIONAL VALUE OF THE AREA   46
4.4. SUBAREA I: RIVER LIVO (by Juho Pennanen)   46
4.4.1. GENERAL FEATURES   46
4.4.2. FORESTS   46
4.4.3. PEATLANDS   48
4.4.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   48
4.5. SUBAREA II: LAKE LUVA (by Juho Pennanen)   48
4.5.1. GENERAL FEATURES   49
4.5.2. FORESTS   49
4.5.3. PEATLANDS   50
4.5.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   50
4.6. SUBAREA III: LAKE KIIMAS (by Otto Miettinen)   50
4.6.1. GENERAL FEATURES   50
4.6.2. FORESTS   50
4.6.3. PEATLANDS   52
4.6.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   52
4.7. SUBAREA IV: LAKE MAKSIM (by Otto Miettinen)   52
4.7.1. GENERAL FEATURES   52
4.7.2. FORESTS   52
4.7.3. PEATLANDS   54
4.7.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   54
4.8. SUBAREA V: LAKE KAITA (by Jarmo Pyykkš and Maiju
Pasanen)   54
4.8.1. GENERAL FEATURES   55
4.8.2. FORESTS   55
4.8.3. PEATLANDS   56
4.8.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   56
4.9. SUBAREA VI: LAKE SARIJ€RVI (by Juho Pennanen)   57
4.9.1. GENERAL FEATURES   57
4.9.2. FORESTS   57
4.9.3. PEATLANDS   58
4.9.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   58
4.10. SUBAREA VII: LAKE NJUK (by Olli-Pekka Tikkanen)   58
4.10.1. GENERAL FEATURES   58
4.10.2. FORESTS   59
4.10.3. PEATLANDS   59
4.10.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE   59
4.11.1. GENERAL FEATURES   60
4.11.2. FORESTS   60
4.11.3. PEATLANDS   62
4.12. SUBAREA IX: M…LKK… PENINSULA (by Otto Miettinen)   62
4.12.1. GENERAL FEATURES   62
4.12.2. FORESTS   62
4.12.3. HUMAN INFLUENCE   63
5. VUOKSA (by Keijo Savola and Marjatta Sihvonen)   64
5.1. INTRODUCTION   64
5.2. GENERAL FEATURES   64
5.2.1. FORESTS   65
5.2.2. MEADOWS   65
5.2.3. RECREATIONAL USE   65
5.2.4. UNCOMMON  AND ENDANGERED SPECIES   65
5.3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE FORESTS   65
5.3.1. HERB-RICH FORESTS   66
5.3.2. HUMAN INFLUENCE   66
5.3.3. AGE  OF THE DIFFERENT STANDS   66
5.3.4. FOREST STRUCTURE AND TREE SPECIES   66
5.3.5. DECAYING WOOD   67
5.4. MIRES   68
5.5. THE NATURE CONSERVATIONAL VALUE   68
5.6. THREATS AND FURTHER INVENTORIES   69
5.7. SIGNIFICANT SPECIES FOUND IN THE AREA   69
6. VOROBÕEVO (by Keijo Savola and Marjatta Sihvonen)   72
6.1. INTRODUCTION   72
6.1.1. THE WESTERN AREA   72
6.1.2. THE EASTERN AREA   72
6.2. GENERAL FEATURES   73
6.3. HUMAN INFLUENCE   73
6.4. THE NATURE CONSERVATIONAL VALUE   73
6.5. FURTHER PROCEDURE AND INVENTORIES   74
6.6. DESCRIPTION OF THE WESTERN AREA   74
6.6.1. FOREST VEGETATION   74
6.6.2. HUMAN INFLUENCE   76
6.6.3. DECAYING WOOD   76
6.6.4. MIRES   77
6.6.5. WATERS   78
6.6.6. SIGNIFICANT SPECIES FOUND IN THE WESTERN AREA   78
6.7. DESCRIPTION OF THE EASTERN AREA   78
6.7.1. FOREST VEGETATION   79
6.7.2. HUMAN INFLUENCE   79
6.7.3. DECAYING WOOD   80
6.7.4. MIRES   80
6.7.5. SIGNIFICANT SPECIES FOUND IN THE EASTERN AREA   81
6.8. FORESTS ALONG THE SHORES OF LAKE LADOGA   81
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS   82
BIBLIOGRAPHY   83
APPENDIX   95

1. INTRODUCTION

This report is the first one of a series to be published on an old-growth
forest survey project by the Finnish Nature League. The aim of the project
is to survey, in co-operation with several Russian NGOs, the ecological
values of potentially valuable areas in the regions of the Republic of
Karelia, Murmansk and Leningrad. In this report we give the results of the
survey made during the summer of 1997. The results for four different areas
are given in this report: PaanajŠrvi and Viena Karelia, which are located
in Republic of Karelia, and Vuoksa and VorobÕevo, which are located on the
Karelian Isthmus in the Leningrad region (see Map 1).

The main initiative for the inventory project was given in June 1997, when
two Russian NGOs - the Biodiversity Conservation Centre (BCC) and
Greenpeace Russia - published a map indicating potentially valuable forest
areas in the Republic of Karelia. The map was published as a response to
the Finnish company EnsoÕs promise to stop old-growth forest loggings in
Karelia, Óin areas to be defined by NGOsÓ. The map was based mainly on
satellite images and forestry maps and contained actual inventory data from
only a few areas. Thus ecological surveys of the other areas were urgently
required. Because of EnsoÕs promise not to log in the potentially valuable
areas before they had been surveyed and decisions about their possible
protection made, the map was given the name Óthe moratoriumÓ map. In autumn
1997, a moratorium map was published also for the Murmansk region, and one
for Leningrad region is currently under preparation. In addition to Enso,
UPM-Kymmene, Vapo, Kuhmo, Pšlkky, Heikki Kokkoniemi, VainionpŠŠ, the
Swedish MoDo, the Norwegian Systemator, and some other smaller contractors
have also joined the moratorium to date.

The survey was performed by the following field team: Milja Ala-Mattila,
Riina Ala-Risku, Susanna Anttila, Jan Dierks, Denis Goppyjef, Meri
Haahtela, Stephanie Hitztaler, Milja Jutila, Anja Kaunisto, Jan Kunnas,
Harri Lammi, Aulikki Lipponen, Katja Matveinen, Otto Miettinen, Elina
Mikola, Mari Niemi, Minna Niemi, Jouni Nissinen, Saku Ovaskainen, Minna
Pappila, Maiju Pasanen, Matti Pellinen, Juho Pennanen, Jarmo Pyykkš, Varpu
Sairinen, Keijo Savola, Marjatta Sihvonen, Olli-Pekka Tikkanen, Suvi
Vanhanen and Aune Veersalu.

2. METHODS

The methods used is based mainly on the experience obtained during the old-
growth forest surveys carried out in Finland during the last ten years and
the old-growth forest survey by WWF Finland carried out in the Viena
Karelia area in 1996 [Pyykkš et al. 1996]. The method introduced in this
chapter was used in the areas of PaanajŠrvi and Viena Karelia. In the
Vuoksa and VorobÕevo areas of the Karelian Isthmus (Chapters 5 and 6),
another type of method was utilized. Thus these chapters should be
considered as an independent part of the report.

The method may be divided into three parts: transects for habitat
distribution, transects for measurement of the distribution of decaying
wood and for the identification of indicator species and threatened
species.

2.1. TRANSECTS FOR HABITAT
DISTRIBUTION

Evaluation of  habitat distribution by using transects was the main method
used for obtaining a general overview of the study areas. The main goals
for evaluating transects for habitat distribution were defined to be

¥   To determine the types of habitats present in the area
¥   To determine the amounts of the various habitats and their
spatial distribution
¥   To determine the quality of the habitats present in the area
(human influence, forest dynamics etc.)

The transects were evaluated by defining a representative grid of straight
lines within the studied area. By representativeness it is meant here that
the density of the base lines should be approximately the same in each
subarea and each type of habitat present in the total area. Of course,
hiking conditions etc. must also be considered when deciding the route for
the survey with the help of maps and/or satellite images. The transect
consists then of the area that is visible to the surveyor during walking
the route. The use of straight lines (of maximum possible length) to be
walked with the help of a compass was chosen, in order to exclude possible
random biases (e.g. the unconscious favouring of some habitats) which could
decrease the statistical accuracy of the method.

The transects were divided into more or less homogeneous units, according
to the forest habitats or peatland habitats which were present in the
transect. The subdivision of the transect contains naturally a lot of
opportunity for variation. One important question is the scale, i.e. the
smallest length of the intersection of the base line of the transect and a
single habitat to be considered. The adoption of too large a scale excludes
(or at least underestimates the amount of) the habitats which are typically
small in size, and which are often of significant ecological value. On the
other hand, too small a scale demands too much work, both during the field
work and the processing of the data. Based on earlier trials, the scale was
chosen to be at least 10 meters, which led in practise to a range of unit
lengths between 10 m and 1 km.

The following data was systematically collected for each habitat unit.

¥   The length of the habitat unit along the transect
¥   The forest and peatland site types
¥   The forest type
¥   The presence of indicator species
¥   Evidence of human influence

The evaluation  of each of these is discussed in more detail below.

2.1.1. THE LENGTH OF THE HABITAT UNIT

Initially, the length of a habitat unit was estimated visually. However,
distance estimates in the field may contain significant errors. The
accuracy of the estimates was increased by the following procedure. The
starting point of the base line of the transect was marked to a GPS
satellite navigator. After a few kilometers, the position was checked
again, giving the distance to the previous check point to an accuracy of
within 100m. The estimated lengths of the habitat units where then added
together and the sum was compared to the one given by GPS. The comparison
of these two figures gives a scaling factor, by which the original
estimates were corrected during the processing of the data. In addition to
the increased accuracy achieved by thus correcting the estimates, this
method also eliminates systematic under- or overestimation. If a GPS
navigator is not available, the same principle may be applied with the
usage of a map and measuring tape.

2.1.2. FOREST AND PEATLAND SITE TYPES

The forests on mineral soils were classified according to the following
classes, in order of increasing nutrient levels. The abbreviations in
parentheses refer to the Finnish names of the types.

¥   Barren sites (KrK). This class is represented both in the
northern boreal forests and middle boreal forests by the forest
type ClT.
¥   Dry sites (KK). Represented by ECT in the mid-boreal and by
MCClT in the northern boreal.
¥   Dryish sites (KvK). Represented by EVT in the mid-boreal and
by EMT in the northern boreal.
¥   Moist sites (TK). Represented by VMT in the mid-boreal and by
HMT in the northern boreal.
¥   Rich sites (LmK). Represented by GOMT in the mid-boreal and by
GMT in the northern boreal.
¥   Very rich sites (Lh). This class, which is also called herb-
rich forest, is represented by several forest types.

In addition to the fertility level, more detailed descriptions were often
given, such as paludified, stony, rocky etc.

The following classification of peatland types was used in the survey, with
the English terminology being adapted from [Laine & Vasander 1989]. The
abbreviations in parentheses refer to the Finnish names of the types.

¥   Eutrophic, paludified hardwood-spruce forest (LhK)
¥   Herb-rich hardwood-spruce swamp (RhK)
¥   Paludified Vaccinium myrtillus spruce forest (KgK)
¥   Equisetum sylvaticum spruce swamp (MkK)
¥   Vaccinium myrtillus spruce swamp (MK)
¥   Rubus chamaemorus spruce swamp (MrK)
¥   Carex globularis spruce swamp (PSK)
¥   Spruce-pine swamp (KR)
¥   Paludified pine forest (KgR)
¥   Dwarf-shrub pine bog (IVR)
¥   Sphagnum fuscum pine bog (RR)
¥   Low-sedge S. papillosum pine fen (LKR)
¥   Cottongrass pine bog (TR)
¥   Tall-sedge pine fen (SR)
¥   Tall-sedge fen (SN)
¥   Low-sedge fen (LKN)
¥   Eutrophic fen (L)
¥   Eutrophic pine fen (LR)
¥   Eutrophic hardwood-spruce swamp (LK)

In addition to the peatland types listed above, more specific descriptions
were also given, such as the presence of water (running, standing or
spring), or a high coverage of the moss Sphagnum fuscum etc. A more precise
classification for eutrophic fens was also often used.

However, as many of the surveyors were not familiar with the classification
system described above,  a simpler classification was used in most parts of
the area.

2.1.3. FOREST TYPE

The forest type was determined for densely forested sites, mainly those on
mineral soils, paludified forests (both pine and spruce) and spruce swamps.
Densely forested paludified forests and spruce swamps are thus classified
as forests in the report.

The forest type is closely related to the history of disturbance dynamics
of the forest. The forest may regenerate e.g. through gap dynamics, various
types of forest fires, storms or damage caused by snow, fungi or insects.
The various types and intensities of possible disturbances, together with
the properties connected, for instance, to the soil and landscape mosaic,
give rise to a wide variety of structural forest types. The diversity of
the habitats and various processes present in the forest contribute to the
high species diversity.

Moreover, the forest type indicates if some key features have remained
throughout the dynamic history without breaks, i.e. if  various types of
temporal continuity are present. For example, certain vascular plants are
dependent on a continuity of the conditions near to the soil surface,
certain lichens depend on the continuity of old living trees and certain
fungi, mosses and beetles depend on the continuity of dead trees of
sufficient size, specific tree species and specific stage of decay. These
species can be used as indicators of continuity. A closely related topic to
the structural type is the successional stage of the forest.

In the definitions of the forest types given below, two Finnish words,
without an appropriate equivalent in English, are used. Aihki means an old-
growth pine. Aihkis are recognized by their thick bark and an even-shaped
top. Kelo means a dead standing pine. Also the definitions of the decay
classes of dead trees are given below. The stages of decay are classified
from 1 to 5, where 1 represents the hardest (and often the most recently
dead) class and 5 the most decayed one. More exact definitions of the decay
classes are given in subsection 2.2. below.

The types may now be classified according to the following definitions.

PINE FORESTS
¥   Evenly-structured pine forest. Pine is the dominant tree
species, the structure of the forest (above the undergrowth) is
(more or less) even and no aihkis nor kelos are present.

¥   Unevenly-structured pine forest. Pine is the dominant tree
species, the structure of the forest is uneven and aihkis and
kelos can be present.

¥   Non-pyrogenous pine forest. Pine is the dominant tree
species (or pine and spruce can be equally dominant) and is
continuously regenerating, although there is no evidence of
fire. Dead aihki-sized pine trees are found on the ground in all
stages of decay. This type is often called a pine refugium.

SPRUCE FORESTS
¥   Mature spruce forest. Spruce is the dominant tree species.
The spruce has reached the maximum height typical for the
particular forestland type, but there are only a few upper
canopy level sized trees decaying on the ground and these belong
to classes 1 and 2. (There can still be any quantity of smaller
spruces on the ground belonging to any decay class.)

¥   Old spruce forest. Spruce is the dominant tree species. The
spruce have reached the maximum height typical for the
particular forestland type and there are many upper canopy level
-size decaying trees on the ground in classes 1-3 and maybe
occasionally in class 4.

¥   Fire-refugia. Fires or other large scale disturbances have
not occurred for about 250-300 years. All sizes of decaying
spruce logs in all decay classes are found on the ground, and
the forest is regenerated through small-gap dynamics. This type
is often called a spruce refugium.

BROAD-LEAVED FORESTS
¥   Broad-leaved forest. Broad-leaved trees (usually aspen and
birch) are the dominant trees. This kind of forest might occur
e.g. in quite a nutrient rich place as the result of slash and
burn cultivation or an intense natural forest fire.

MIXED FORESTS
¥   Mixed, even-aged forest. Pine, spruce and broad-leaved tree
species have emerged in the area, more or less at the same time.
This kind of forest might be the result of e.g. slash and burn
cultivation or an intense natural forest fire.

In addition to the types described above, other cases may also occur. The
forest might, for example, be in a condition arising from a recent, large
scale disturbance which has affected the forest structure dramatically.

The definitions given above describe the average situation described by the
given class, though of course, intermediate classes occur in nature. In
such a case it is left to the surveyor to choose the class which gives the
best description of the character of the forest in question.

The coarse classification of the forest structures by the types given above
is specified more precisely by the evaluation of the following characters.

¥   Size.  Tree size measured by the DBH (diameter at breast
height) of the canopy layer trees.

¥   Decaying trees. The quantity, tree species, state of decay
and size distribution of decaying trees.

¥   Undergrowth. The quantity, tree species and height
distribution (as compared to the height of the canopy layer
trees) of the undergrowth. When the undergrowing spruce have
reached the height of the dominating canopy layer in a pine or
broad-leaved forest, the forest is said to be in transition to
spruce forest.

¥   Broad-leaved trees. The quantity, tree species, diameter
and height distribution (as compared to the height of the canopy
layer trees) of the broad-leaved trees.

¥   Aihkis. The quantity and diameter of aihkis and the presence
and amount of fire scars.

¥   Aspens and willows. The quantity and diameter of aspens and
willows. In this report the word willow always refers to Salix
caprea.

The three latter characters, in particular, are included in the habitat
transect methodology because of their well-known positive effect on
biodiversity.

2.1.4. INDICATOR SPECIES

Indicator species may be used for reflecting certain characteristics of the
forest: old-growth characteristics, nutrient levels, humidity etc. A lot of
experience in use of indicator species has been gained during the last 10
years in Finland and Sweden. Especially among fungi, mosses and lichens,
there are many important and well-known indicator species. In addition to
reflecting the presence of certain characteristics, a good indicator
species should be a) relatively common in places where the character in
question is present, b) easy to perceive, and c) relatively easy to
identify. Some important indicator species and the characters for which
they are indicative are listed below.

OLD-GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS
¥   Polypore fungi. Fomitopsis rosea, Amylocystis lapponica,
Phellinus nigrolimitatus, Skeletocutis odora, Skeletocutis
stellae, Haploporus odorus, Antrodia albobrunnea, Hericium
coralloides.

¥   Lichens. Alectoria sarmentosa.

¥   Vascular plants. Goodyera repens, Epipogium aphyllum.

¥   Birds. Picoides tridactylus.

HIGH FERTILITY LEVEL
¥   Vascular plants. In forests Cypripedium calceolus, Cicerbita
alpina, Actaea spicata, Actaea erythrocarpa, Matteuccia
struthiopteris, Diplazium sibiricum. On peatlands Selaginella
selaginoides, Tofieldia pusilla, Dactylorhiza incarnata,
Parnassia palustris.

¥   Mosses. On peatlands Campylium stellatum, Tomemtypmum nites.

HUMID MICRO-CLIMATE
¥   Lichens. Lobaria pulmonaria, Lobaria scrobiculata.

PRESENCE OF A SPRING
¥   Mosses. Paludella squarrosam, Rhizomnium sp.

2.1.5. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Four main types of human disturbance were present in the areas surveyed.

¥   Logging. The intensity of the logging, the amount of time
since the loggings were carried out, as well as the size and
tree species logged were  noted. The areas in which logging had
taken place were classified as a) low-intensity loggings (less
than 20 stumps/hectare), b) high-intensity loggings (more than
20 stumps/hectare). There are various quick methods for
estimating the amount of stumps per hectare, e.g. various sized,
circular or rectangular study plots. However, the density of
stumps may be quite reliably estimated visually by an
experienced surveyor. Often the more difficult task is the
classification of old, thoroughly decayed stumps as natural or
anthropogenic ones.

¥   Slash and burn cultivation. Evidence of slash and burn
-type agriculture is generally recognisable typically already
from the forest type (typically mixed even-aged forest or broad-
leaved forest, see 2.1.3. above). In most of the areas, Óslash
and burn -typeÓ may be indicated by the presence of the so
called slash and burn stumps and/or the existence of old girdled
pines. The time since the Óslash and burnÓ may be estimated by
drilling a sample core from the oldest trees that have grown
since the cessation of cultivation. Accordingly, the areas are
classified here as either, a) slash and burn area, or b)
possible slash and burn area.

¥   Resin tapping. The intensity of collection, the average
height of the scarred area, and the level of defoliation of the
affected trees are the main parameters relevant to the effect of
resin collection. The resin collection areas are classified here
into two categories: a) low-intensity resin collection (only a
small number of trees affected), or b) high-intensity resin
collection (most of or at least a considerable number of the
trees affected).

¥   Anthropogenic fires. As there has been human settlement for
centuries in many of the old Karelian villages, near or even
inside the study areas, anthropogenic fires have certainly
occurred. This has increased the natural fire frequency
somewhat. However, in most cases, it is very difficult, or even
impossible, to distinguish between natural and anthropogenic
fires. Thus, in areas near the villages, it was attempted to
estimate if the fire frequency had been clearly higher than in
remote, but otherwise similar areas.

Based upon the above, the areas were classified into three classes.

1.   Untouched - No signs of human influence.
2.   Relatively untouched - Low-intensity loggings or low-
intensity resin collection.
3.   Altered - Other types of human influence.

Note that possible slash and burn cultivation sites were also classified as
altered. This was done in order to avoid overestimation of the intactness
of the area.

2.2. TRANSECTS FOR DECAYING TREE
DISTRIBUTION

In addition to the analysis of forest structure included in the
transects for habitat distribution, more quantitative
measurements were made for determining the amount and
distribution of dead wood in the forest, as well as some living
key trees, namely aihkis, aspens and willows. The importance of
decaying wood for many threatened species, and biodiversity in
general, can hardly be overestimated. Equally, the importance of
certain living key trees, especially aspens and willows of
considerable size, is also well-known.
The method for evaluating transects for stand structure measurements has
been developed by Mariko Lindgren, at Helsinki University. Her reports also
include comparative results concerning industrially managed forests in
Finland.

The transects are evaluated as a 500 meter long by 10 meter wide rectangle,
covering  thus an area of 0.5 hectares. In practise, the transect is
evaluated by setting a 500 meter long line into the forest, through a
counter which gives the length of the line set. Those dead trees (trees
without any living needles or leaves left) and other key trees (aihkis,
aspens and willows), whose basal part is within 5 meters of the thread, are
counted.

The starting point of the transect is chosen randomly along the study route
for measurements for habitat distribution. The direction of the transect is
also chosen randomly from north, south, east and west.

The DBH (diameter at breast height) of living aihkis, aspens and willows is
measured.

The dead trees are classified according to the following properties.

¥   Tree species. In cases where the species is not recognized
because of their extreme state of decay, the tree species is
classified as unknown.
¥   Type. Dead trees standing and dead trees lying on the ground
are counted separately.
¥   Size. The DBH is classified to the following classes: 5-9 cm,
10-19 cm, 20-29 cm, 30-39 cm etc. Trees with a diameter of less
than 5 cm are ignored. In the case of broken trees, the length
of the tree is also estimated.
¥   Stage of decay.  The stages of decay are classified so that
class 1 represents the hardest (and usually the most recently
dead) and class 5 the most decayed. More precise definitions are
given below:

DEAD TREES LYING ON THE GROUND
¥   G1. The bark and nearly all branches remain. Wood is hard but
not Ókelo-likeÓ.
¥   G2. Small branches have fallen off. The wood is still hard or
kelo-like (It is not possible to push a knife more than a few
centimeters into the tree). In the case of coniferous trees,
aspens and willows, the bark is becoming loose or is completely
missing.
¥   G3. The wood is decaying. It is possible to push a knife
halfway in, the trunk cracks if it is kicked, the tree top
breaks if it is lifted. Kelos lying on the ground have only the
largest branches remaining. It is possible to push a knife
several centimeters in also in the case of  a kelo, or the
interior of the kelo-trunk is completely decayed.
¥   G4. It is possible to push a knife all the way in the wood,
although there is still some resistance. The form of the trunk
is still preserved. Kelos may already have some completely
decayed parts, or parts where the diameter is only a fraction of
the original measurement.
¥   G5. A knife goes easily all the way in (though birches may
still have a tough bark). The wood is completely decayed and it
is possible to crush it with the fingers into a soft paste. The
trunk is often covered with mosses. Trunks that can still be
distinguished e.g. when walking on them, are included in this
class as well.

The stage of decay of dead trees laying on the ground is defined by the
ÓaverageÓ of the trunk, with emphasis on the basal part. E.g. the tops of
G5 pines are often still hard ( kelo-like).

DEAD STANDING TREES
¥   S1. The bark and nearly all of the branches of the tree still
remain and the tree is standing firmly. The wood is hard, not
kelo-like, and there might still be some dead leaves/ needles
left.
¥   S2. Coniferous trees, aspens and willow are losing their bark,
but still have some left. Small branches have already fallen
off. The wood is still hard (may be becoming kelo-like), and the
tree is standing firmly.
¥   S3. Only the largest branches of the tree are left. Coniferous
trees, and often aspens, have become kelo-like, pines are
barkless and spruces nearly barkless. Coniferous trees are still
standing firmly, but birches might sway and could be pushed down
with some extra force. Birches have soft parts into which it is
possible to push a knife a few centimeters - halfway in.
¥   S4. The basal parts of coniferous trees are decaying and the
trees sway or are leaning. Stumps (height 1.3 -4 m) of
coniferous trees broken due to decay are also classified to S4,
unless they are clearly hollow or softening, in which case they
belong to S5. Birches have already become soft. It is possible,
at least in some parts, to push a knife all the way into the
wood, although there is still some resistance.
¥   S5. Coniferous trees no longer stand on their own but are
slanting and leaning onto other trees or could easily be pushed
down. Birches often remain standing only because of their tough
bark.

2.3. THREATENED SPECIES

The presence of threatened species is naturally noteworthy when determining
the nature conservation value of a specific area. However, in this study,
the presence of threatened species was studied only sporadically. The task
of observing and identifying threatened species requires a remarkable
amount of time and experience. The main purpose of this survey was to
obtain a general view of a very large area, with only limited resources
available. Thus, special attention for finding threatened species was paid
relatively seldom and only in specially promising places and only by those
surveyors capable of locating and identifying such species.

3. PAANAJ€RVI

3.1 THE AREA

The research area was located to the north, east and south of the
PaanajŠrvi National Park. The current park, which consists of 103 000
hectares, was established in May 1992. The main  part of  the research area
was located in the north-western corner of  the Republic of Karelia, with
only the very northernmost part being located in the Murmansk region. The
total area of  85 500 hectares surveyed in summer 1997 is shown in the
attached map.

Together with PaanajŠrvi Nartional Park, the study area and the adjacent
old-growth forests constitute a total area of nearly 300 000 hectares - one
of the largest untouched areas in the Europe.

3.2.  GENERAL FEATURES

3.2.1. LANDSCAPE AND SOIL

The landscape is characterized by steep hills covered with northern boreal
spruce dominated forests. As a result of tectonic movements and fracturing,
the relief also includes a variety of rugged features, such as narrow
canyons and deep lakes. There are several treeless fjells in the area. The
highest of these, Nuorunen (576 meters), is located within the National
Park area, as well as MŠntytunturi (550 m) and Kivakka (499 m). Outside the
current park area, the most magnificent fjells are Sieppitunturi (531 m),
Lunas (495 m), PjŠsisara (488 m) and PŠŠnuorunen (486 m).

In most parts of the area, the quaternary deposits on top of the bedrock
are thin or even absent, thus the pre-quaternary bedrock is denuded in many
places. The thicker deposits are located mainly in the valley of the River
Oulanka, where the esker is covered by deltaic deposits formed during the
glacial period. Some similar formations are also found along some of the
smaller rivers, such as the River Kuvdensa and River Sirman. The diversity
of rock types present in the area, especially of rocks rich in carbonates
(and consequently abnormally high pH values up to 8.5), is the reason for
the high diversity of the flora present in the area.

3.2.2. CLIMATE

The climate of the area is extremely continental in comparision to the rest
of Fennoscandia. The summers are typically hot and the winters cold, even
below -40(C may be measured in the valley of Lake PaanajŠrvi nearly every
year. However, towards the tops of the hills, the temperature typically
rises considerably. The location of the site within the watershed area is
evident from the climate e.g. as snowy winters (typically up to 1 meter of
snow). The damage caused by crown snow load in altitudes above 300 meters
is considerable.

3.2.3. VEGETATION

PaanajŠrvi is located in the northern boreal vegetation zone, though both
northern and southern elements are however seen in the vegetation. The most
southern elements are found in the core of the National Park, namely in the
valley of Lake PaanajŠrvi and River Oulanka. In this area there are several
relicts originating from the more temperate periods since the ice age.The
most southerly mountain tundras in Europe are found on the tops of the
fjells of the PaanajŠrvi area [Systra 1997]. Various species which are rare
in the south are present in the fjells.

A mosaic of forests and peatlands along the hillsides, treeless fjell-tops,
rivers and brooks on the lower valleys are characteristic features of the
area. Due to the great relative heights, the steepness of the typically
east-west directed hills and sharp contrasts between light and shadow, the
area provides a diverse spectrum of micro-climates from hot south-facing
slopes to shadowy spruce swamps and windy fjells. A zonal variation of
vegetation types is typical for the hills and is seen already from far away
as longitudinal stripes of pine-, spruce- or broad-leaved dominated
forests. The diversity of habitats results in a high species diversity,
which is exceptionally rich here when compared to other areas of Karelian
Republic.

About 570 vascular plant species have been found inside the PaanajŠrvi
National Park area, more than 70 of which are classified as threatened
according to the Red Data Book of Karelia.

3.2.4. HISTORY OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Good water routes, productive fishing waters and rich game stocks brought
people to the PaanajŠrvi area already 7000-8000 years ago. The more
permanent human settlements concentrated around Lake PaanajŠrvi. At the
beginning of this century, the PaanajŠrvi village already consisted of 450
inhabitants and at that time the main livelihoods were cultivation,
grazing, forestry, reindeer herding, hunting, fishing, berry picking and
trade. The livelihoods which left the biggest influences which are still
visible in the environment near the village areas, were forestry and slash
and burn cultivation.

As long as there has been human settlement, wood from the forests around
the villages has been utilized for building and heating. The more intensive
loggings which were done for trading purposes, started around the valley of
the River Oulanka in the 1890Õs, as a result of changes in ownership of
land due to the general parcelling.

Slash and burn type of cultivation was common at the beginning of the 19th
century and ceased in the middle of the century. Of course, most of the
slash and burn areas are found near the permanent settlement around the
PaanajŠrvi lake. Towards the north in the more remote areas, slash and burn
areas get more rare and finally disappear.

The PaanajŠrvi village was evacuated during the Second World War, leaving
the area without any human influence for some decades.

In the 1960Õs, the water level of Lake PŠŠjŠrvi was raised by 9 meters
seriously affecting the environment around the lake. Nowadays, the biggest
threat is constituted by the industrial loggings approaching the area from
the south, east and north.

3.2.5. SIGNIFICANCE FOR SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH

PaanajŠrvi has been an interesting site for scientists for a long time. In
particular, the diversity of vascular plants in the PaanajŠrvi National
Park area has been well-studied. Also many studies on other species have
been made in the area, e.g. the following Finnish studies are useful.
[Wainio 1878] - vascular plants; [Auer 1923] -vascular plants, mire
ecosystems; [Pesola 1928] - vascular plants, calciphilous  flora;
[Tuomikoski 1939] - mosses; [Sšyrinki 1956] - vascular plants; [Ahti &
HŠmet-Ahti 1971] - vascular plants, hemerophilous flora; [Halonen 1993] -
lichens; [Huttunen & Vasari 1993] - vascular plants. A lot of Russian
studies have also been done recently, cite e.g. [Elina et al. 1994] -
mires, [Sazonov 1995] - birds, [Systra 1997] - overall.

3.2.6. CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL
SIGNIFICANCE

In addition to its beautiful landscape and well-known biodiversity, the
PaanajŠrvi area is also famous for the colourful history of the PaanajŠrvi
village prior to the Second World War. The culture experienced its climax
in the time of the so called Karelianism at the end of the 19th century. In
1892 the Finnish artist Akseli Gallen-Kallela lived in the area, painting
e.g. The Shepherd Boy from PaanajŠrvi and The Great Black Woodpecker, both
of which are outstanding works of Finnish art history. The photographs
taken by I.K. Inha during the same period, also constitute a remarkable
part of the history of Finnish photography. Later many other well known
artists as the author Ilmari Kianto, during the 1910s, found their
inspiration in the nature and culture of PaanajŠrvi.

3.3. THE AREA SURVEYED IN SUMMER 1997

The survey area of 85 500 hectares was divided into the following five
subareas, which are shown in the attached map.

¥   Subarea I: River Kuvzdensa. Total area 28 500 hectares.
Surveyed by Otso Ovaskainen, Aune Veersalu, Milja Ala-Mattila,
Meri Haahtela, Minna Niemi, Stephanie Hitztaler, Saku Ovaskainen
and Harri Lammi.
¥   Subarea II: Fjell Lunas. Total area 17 000 hectares. Surveyed
by Otto Miettinen, Milja Ala-Mattila and Matti Pellinen.
¥   Subarea III: River Levsus. Total area 18 000 hectares.
Surveyed by Otso Ovaskainen, Marjatta Sihvonen and Elina Mikola.
¥   Subarea IV: Lake Tsipringa. Total area 14 000 hectares
(excluding lake Tsipringa). Surveyed by Jouni Nissinen, Varpu
Sairinen and Saku Ovaskainen.
¥   Subarea V: River Tava. Total area 8 000 hectares. Surveyed by
Susanna Anttila and Milja Jutila.

3.3.1. FORESTS

The vegetation types of the forest patches in the survey area
represented all nutrient levels, from barren sites to very rich
sites. The vegetation types (including densely forested spruce
swamps) of the whole survey area were distributed as follows.

Barren sites   <1
Dry sites   4
Dryish sites   27
Moist sites   52
Rich sites   5
Very rich sites   1
Spruce swamps   10

The forest structure types of densely forested patches were
distributed in the survey area as follows.

Pine forests   35
   Evenly-structured   7
   Unevenly-structured   28
   Non-pyrogenous   <1

Spruce forests   57

   Mature spruce forests   16
   Old spruce forests   15
   Fire-refugia   26

Broad-leaved forests   5
Mixed even-aged forests   2
Most of the survey area was thus covered by spruce dominated moist forests.
The most nutrient rich, broad-leaved forests were found in particular in
the southern part of subarea III. In the herb-rich forests and eutrophic,
paludified, hardwood-spruce forests of this area e.g. Diplazium sibiricum,
Actaea spicata, Actaea erythrocarpa, Lonicera caerulea subsp. pallasii and
Cypripedium calceolus were found. In addition to subarea III, also subareas
IV and V contained some valuable herb-rich forests and mires. The
proportion of fire-refugia forests was greatest in subarea II and pine
dominated forests were found most frequently in subarea IV.

The amount of both paludified forests and spruce swamps was considerable.
The spruce swamps consisted of a diverse variety of types from Vaccinium
myrtillus and Rubus chamaemorus spruce swamps all the way to patches of
herb-rich hardwood-spruce swamps, characterized by springs.

3.3.2. DECAYING WOOD

The amount and distribution of decaying wood was estimated by the method
described in section 2.2. The total length of thread set into the forest
was 5 036 m, giving the 10 m wide rectangle-shaped transects a total area
of about 5 hectares, which should be kept in mind when estimating the
reliability and accuracy of the figures given below. Some of them refer
just to a few individual trunks, so those figures should be taken as  no
more than indicative.

The total amount of decaying wood was found to be 384 trunks (diameter > 5
cm) per hectare, of which 313 were laying on the ground and 71 still
standing. The size distribution of decaying wood (trunks/ha) was found to
be as follows:

Diameter   On ground   Standing   Total
  
5-9   76.1   21.2   97.3
10-19   143.0   29.2   172.2
20-29   70.7   15.5   86.2
30-39   19.5   4.2   23.6
40-49   3.2   0.8   4.0
50-   0.4   0.4   0.8

Total   312.7   71.3   384.0
As the very thin (< 10 cm) trunks were not considered to be as interesting
as the larger ones, all the figures given below will include only trunks
with diameter > 10 cm. As may be concluded from the above, the density of
such trunks was found to be 287 per hectare, 237 of which were lying on the
ground and 50 standing.

The spatial distribution of decaying wood, i.e., the percentage shares of
the various dead wood (diameter > 10 cm) density levels was found to be as
follows:

Trunks/ha   On ground   Standing   Total
  
<50   1   63   1
50-99   7   22   <1
100-199   32   15   17
200-299   26   -   37
300-399   26   -   29
400-499   7   -   8
>500   -   -   8
Thus the most typical sites included some 200-300 decaying trunks per
hectare, less than 50 of which were standing. Sites with more than 300
decaying trunks per hectare were represented by 45% of the forested area,
and sites with in excess of 400 by 16%.

The tree species distribution of the identified decaying wood (percentages
of the total amount) was found to be as follows:

Species   On ground   Standing   Total
  
Pine   12   30   16
Spuce   52   29   47
Birch   34   40   35
Aspen   1   1   1
Willow   1   <1   1
However, 15% of the decaying wood laying on ground remained unidentified
because of an advanced state of decay, and these were excluded from the
table above. The high proportion of spruce shows clearly the domination of
old spruce forests in the PaanajŠrvi area. It can be roughly estimated
that, in the whole PaanajŠrvi area, there are some 20-30 million decaying
spruce trunks of over 10 cm in diameter. As the PaanajŠrvi area is the
biggest untouched spruce forest in Fennoscandia, it can be stated that
these spruce trunks constitute the last refuge for a diverse collection of
threatened species which depend on the abundance of decaying spruce.

The relatively high proportions of standing dead pines and birches arises
from the fact that these typically remain standing longer after their
death, birch often only because of its tough bark.

The decay stage distribution of decaying wood (percentages of the total
amount) was found to be as follows:

Decay stage   On ground   Standing   Total
  
G/S 1   10   26   12
G/S 2   16   28   18
G/S 3   20   31   22
G/S 4   26   11   23
G/S 5   29   5   25
The intact nature of the forests can be seen from the table: All decaying
classes are well represented. The greater portion of old refugia-like
forests can be seen here as a high proportion of  higly decayed trunks.

The average density of old pines (not yet defined as aihkis) and aihkis was
found to be about 10 per hectare, the density of aspens about 4 per hectare
and the density of willows about 8 per hectare. However, as there is no
objective definiton of old pines and aihkis, their being determined by the
quite subjective method of simply considering their shape and bark, the
figures given for them should be considered not more than suggestive. In
principle, an old pine may be considered as being some 150-250 years old
and an aihki more than 250 years old.

The size distribution of these key trees was found to be as follows
(trees/ha):

Diameter   Old pines   Aihkis   Old pines+aihkis   Aspens   Willows
  
10-19   0.4   -   0.4   2.2   0.8
20-29   1.6   2.0   3.6   1.4   5.6
30-39   0.4   1.2   1.6   -   1.6
40-49   0.2   2.2   2.4   -   -
50-59   1.0   0.4   1.4   0.2   -
>60   -   0.4   0.4   -   -

Total   3.6   6.2   9.8   3.8   7.9
The spatial distribution of living key trees, i.e., the percentage
proportions of various living key tree density levels, was found to be as
follows:

Trees/ha   Old pines   Aihkis   Old pines+aihkis   Aspens   Willows
  
0      83   71   64   68   45
1-20   13   19   18   27   41
20-39   1   3   9   4   11
40-59   -   6   5   1   1
>60   3   1   5   -   1
Thus, a one hectare patch of the most typical forest in the area did not
include a single individual of any of the key trees. Of course, old pines
and aihkis were naturally concentrated in the pine dominated areas which
covered 35% of the total forested area, whereas aspens were concentrated in
the nutrient-rich areas. The spatial distribution of willows was more even,
their being typically present on all sites from very rich to moist, and
also on the edges of dryish sites adjacent to mires.

3.3.3. PEATLANDS

Most of the peatlands in the area were small in size and located in a
mosaic patchwork between the mineral soil patches. Only a few large aapa-
mires were present in the area. The peatlands were characteristized by the
diversity of the various types. The whole spectrum from barren fens and
pine bogs to eutrophic fens were present, and the share of the latter ones
was remarkably high.

As peatlands were classified according to somewhat different
classifications in the five subareas, the figures given for the subareas
are not summarized here.

The peatlands and springs of subarea III constituted an especially rich
entity.  Both Scorpidium type, Warnstorfii type and Intermedius type
eutrophic fens  growing e.g. Campylium stellatum and Tomentypmum nites were
abundant in the area. Mesotrophic fens, characterized e.g. by Tofieldia
pusilla, Selaginella selaginoides and Trichophorum alpinum were found
throughout the surveyed area.

3.3.4. WATER SYSTEMS

A diverse variety of lakes, ponds, brooks and rivers was present in the
area. Starting from the north, the rivers Kuvdensa (subarea I), Sirman
(subareas I-III), Levsus (subareas II and III), Nuris (subarea V) and Tava
(subarea V) collected the waters of the respective watersheds. In subarea
IV, no dominant water system was present, and the water bodies there
essentially consisted of Lake Tsipringa (Kumskoje reservoir) and the small
rivers and brooks which flew into it. Excluding Lake Tsipringa, all of the
lakes in the survey area were relatively small, with a maximum of 4
kilometers in diameter.

Excluding Lake Tsipringa, the western shore of the regulated Lake
Sokolozero, and some selective loggings performed alond the big rivers,
practically all of the water bodies in the surveyed area were totally
untouched. In particular, the large amount of untouched brooksides, which
were often very rich in nutrients, was a striking feature. Many of the
smaller water bodies and peatlands were characterized by springs.

3.3.5. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence in the survey area was distributed
as follows.

Untouched   77
Relatively untouched   13
Altered   10

Human influence was most clearly seen in subarea IV, where the proportion
of untouched forests was just 9%. However, most of the loggings found in
the area were relatively old, and the forests had practically reverted to
their natural dynamics.

Disregarding subarea IV, the share of untouched or relatively untouched
forests was 90%. For subareas I and II, which covered more than half of the
surveyed area, the proportion was as nuch as 97%.

Evidenced slash and burn agriculture was found in about 2% of the total
area. This type of cultivation had been most common in the rich forest
sites, quite near to the old PaanajŠrvi village. Resin tapping had not been
performed in this area.

3.3.6. SPECIES

The time available for surveying the species diversity was restricted due
to the limited resources available. For more comprehensive studies
concerning the species diversity in the area, refer to the references in
subchapter 3.2.5. The following observations were made during this survey.

Birds
¥   Cygnus cygnus. 11 individuals.
¥   Anser fabalis. One pair.
¥   Buteo lagopus. 3 pairs.
¥   Lagopus lagopus. 4 observations.
¥   Tetrao urogallus. Many observations.
¥   Tetrao tetrix. Many observations.
¥   Bonasa bonasia. Many observations.
¥   Grus Grus. One pair.
¥   Glaucidium passerinum. Two observations.
¥   Aegolius funereus. One observation.
¥   Dryocopus martius.2 observations.
¥   Picoides tridactylus. Many observations.
¥   Parus cinctus. Many observations.
¥   Perisoreus infaustus. Common in spruce forests.
¥   Corvus corax. Many observations.

Mammals
¥   Ursus arctos. One observation, faeces common.
¥   Canis lupus.One footprint on sandy beach.
¥   Rangifer tarandus fennicus. One observartion, faeces and
footprints common.
¥   Alces alces. One observation.

Vascular plants
¥   Selaginella selaginoides. Common on nutrient rich fens.
¥   Dryopteris carthusiana
¥   Dryopteris expansa
¥   Diplazium sibiricum. 4 specimens.
¥   Athyrium filix-femina
¥   Matteuccia struthiopteris
¥   Actaea spicata. 5 specimens.
¥   Actaea erythrocarpa. 15 specimens.
¥   Arctostaphylos alpina.On top of fjell PjŠsisara.
¥   Daphne mezereum
¥   Ribes spicatum.Many specimens.
¥   Ribes nigrum. 2 specimens.
¥   Parnassia palustris. Common on nutrient rich fens.
¥   Rubus saxatilis
¥   Rubus idaeus
¥   Rosa majalis
¥   Prunus padus
¥   Lonicera caerulea subsp. pallasii. Several specimens on brook-
and riversides.
¥   Cypripedium calceolus. 4 specimens.
¥   Crepis paludosa. Common on nutrient rich peatlands.
¥   Cicerbita alpina. Many specimens.
¥   Paris quadrifolia
¥   Tofieldia pusilla. Common on nutrient rich fens.
¥   Goodyera repens. Common on spruce forests on moist forest
sites.
¥   Dactylorhiza incarnata. Many specimens.
¥   Hammarbya paludosa. 1 specimen.
¥   Trichophorum alpinum. Common on nutrient rich peatlands.
¥   Eriophorum latifolium
¥   Melica nutans
¥   Milium effusum
¥   Molinia caerulaea. Common on nutrient rich peatlands.

Mosses
¥   Campylium stellatum
¥   Calliergon richardsonii
¥   Cinclidium stygium
¥   Limprichtia intermedia
¥   Limprichtia revolvens
¥   Loeskypnum badium
¥   Paludella squarrosa
¥   Philotis calcarea
¥   Scorpidium lapponicum
¥   Scorpidium scorpioides
¥   Sphagnum warnstorfii
¥   Tomentypmum nites

Lichens
¥   Alectoria sarmentosa. Common in spruce forests.
¥   Lobaria pulmonaria. Abundant on willow and aspen, often on
birch, rowan or rock, once on spruce.
¥   Lobaria scrobiculata. Common on willow and aspen.

Aphyllophorales
¥   Amylocystis lapponica. Common in spruce refugia.
¥   Antrodia albobrunnea. Many specimens.
¥   Cystostereum murraii
¥   Diplomitoporus crustulinus. 2 specimens.
¥   Fomitopsis rosea. Quite common in spruce refugia.
¥   Gloeophyllum odoratum.1 specimen.
¥   Gloeophyllum protractum. 4 specimens in the pine area.
¥   Haploporus odorus. 64 specimens!, most common on nutrient rich
forests.
¥   Hericium coralloides. 2 specimens.
¥   Inocutis rheades. 1 specimen.
¥   Junghuhnia collabens. 2 specimens.
¥   Junghuhnia luteoalba. 2 specimens.
¥   Laurilia sulcata
¥   Leptoporus mollis. 1 specimen.
¥   Onnia leporina. Common in spruce-dominated forests.
¥   Phellinus chrysoloma
¥   Phellinus ferrugineofuscus. Many specimens.
¥   Phellinus lundellii
¥   Phellinus nigrolimitatus Dominating species on large logs in
spruce refugia.
¥   Phellinus pini. Common in pine forests.
¥   Phellinus populicola.12 specimens.
¥   Phellinus viticola. Very common in spruce-dominated forests.
¥   Phlebia centrifuga
¥   Polyporus leptocephalus
¥   Rigidoporus corticola. Many specimens.
¥   Skeletocutis jelicii
¥   Skeletocutis lenis
¥   Skeletocutis odora
¥   Skeletocutis stellae
¥   Trichaptum pargamenum

3.3.7. THE NATURE CONSERVATIONAL VALUE OF
THE AREA

As most of the area surveyed proved to be practically untouched, there is
no doubt about their extremely high nature conservational value. Together
with the existing PaanajŠrvi National Park, they constitute one of the
biggest, and probably the most untouched, old-growth forest areas in
Europe, which gives a self-evident unique value to the area.

When travelling from the PaanajŠrvi lake towards the north, two kind of
gradients could clearly be seen: the richness of the soil decreased but the
intactness of the forests increased. Thus although the most rich sites were
located inside the current park or in areas closely connected to the park
in the north, east and south, the most untouched and remote forests, as
well as most of the fire refugia forests, were actually located a long way
to the north from the current National Park area. This is clearly connected
to the influence of the old settlement at the PaanajŠrvi village before the
Second World War. However, as the status of these remote forests is still
practically nonexistant, the question of some of the most valuable old-
growth forests in the taiga remains unresolved.

In [Systra, Y. 1997], the nature conservational value of the following
areas in particular is emphasized and the extension of the park to these
areas is recommended.

¥   The areas between Lake Tspringa and Lake PŠŠjŠrvi (in subarea
IV).
¥   The peatland areas around Rivers Nuris and Oulanka (in
subareas IV and V).
¥   The fjell areas of Lunas (in subarea II) and Sieppitunturi,
including the surrounding highland forests and salmon rivers.
¥   The area connected to the Oulanka National Park in the north-
western corner of the PaanajŠrvi National Park.

3.4. SUBAREA I: RIVER KUVZDENSA (by Otso
Ovaskainen)

This area was located partly in the Karelian Republic and partly in the
Murmansk region. It was the northenmost part of the complete PaanajŠrvi
old-growth area.

3.4.1. GENERAL FEATURES

This subarea was characterized by untouched spruce forests which werw
notable for their absence of loggings, or any other human influence. In
fact, the proportion which showed any sign of human influence constituted
less than 4% of the surveyed area.The landscape was characterized by
spruce-dominated large hills (typically up to 330 meters) and the lowlands
between the hills. In this area there was also one treeless fjell, the 488
meters high PjŠsisara. The water bodies were dominated by the River
Kuvzdensa with the various smaller rivers and brooks which flew into it, as
well as numerous lakes (typically of 0.1-2.5 km in diameter). Excluding the
densely forested spruce swamps, the peatlands constituted 18% of the area.
They were mostly small-scale and located in a mosaic patchwork between the
forestlands. However, because of the hilly landscape, in most of the area
the unit size of the forest patches within this mosaic was quite large.

3.4.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   <1
Dry sites   2
Dryish sites   21
Moist sites   59
Rich sites   2
Very rich sites   <1
Spruce swamps   16

The forest structure types of the densely forested patches were
distributed as follows.

Pine forests   29
   Evenly-structured   7
   Unevenly-structured   20
   Non-pyrogenous   <1

Spruce forests   70
   Mature spruce forests   22
   Old spruce forests   14
   Fire-refugia   34

Broad-leaved forests   1
Mixed even-aged forests   0
Most of the area was thus covered by moist, spruce dominated forests. Due
to the remote location and thus lack of human influence, which could
increase fire frequency, fire-refugia type spruce forests were quite common
in the area. Mainly dryish, pine dominated forests covered about one
quarter of the area. Most of these were unevenly-structured pine forests,
about half of which were in a transition state to spruce forest. Small-
sized dry forests were also present. Some of these patches were surrounded
by treeless peatland areas and had thus avoided any fires, being in the
state of non-pyrogenous pine forests. In some places, the moist forest
sites transformed into rich forest sites. These were characterized by e.g.
Cicerbita alpina, Ribes spicatum, Daphne mezereum, Rosa majalis and Prunus
padus. Herb-rich forests were practically absent, with only a few very
small patches being found.

The spruce swamps consisted of a diverse variety of types, for example
Equisetum sylvaticum spruce swamps, Vaccinium myrtillus and Rubus
chamaemorus spruce swamps occurred typically, as well as Carex globularis
spruce swamps. Small patches of herb-rich hardwood-spruce swamps were often
seen along the brooks.

Birch was found in practically all of the patches, the amount varying
between 3-10% . Willow was also present throughout the whole area, but
aspen was found only in a few places. A few dozen tree sized individuals of
both rowan and alder were also found.

As has already been noted, most of the forests had avoided intensive fires
for a few centuries, however, there was also a diverse collection of
younger forests which had arisen since such fires. Notable among these was
an area of several hundred hectares which was located to the west of the
PjŠsisara fell. This area was burned about 40 years ago, and about half of
the area is now moist forest that has regenerated to a young spruce-birch
forest. The other half is dry forest and has regenerated to a young pine-
birch forest. Both of these stands were extremely dense, and in some places
quite difficult to traverse. In both types there was still decaying wood
which originates from the tree generation before the fire. Without local
knowledge it is impossible to say whether this fire was anthropogenic or
not. However, as a mosaic element of the large, old-growth forest, it
increases the diversity of habitats in the area. If left untouched, the
area will be extremely interesting from the aspect of natural forest
succession.

Another type of large burnt area was located on the northern side of Lake
Ribe. This dry forest site, of approximately 100 hectares, was completely
burnt some 150 years ago, being now in the state of a dense, even-aged pine
forest. As a result of self-thinning, a lot of small pines in different
stages of decay, were to be found on the ground. Similar, but smaller areas
were found also in other parts of the study area.

Where fire, or the lack of fire, had dominated the forest dynamics in the
lower areas, the damage caused by crown snow loads and storms had been the
dominant type of disturbance in many of the higher areas. Typically, the
damage had caused the fall of (or serious weakening of) some 20-40% of the
trees, so that the age distribution of living trees and dead wood was not
even. One can distinguish the marks of possibly several disturbances in the
large amount of dead trees in particular stages of decay. However, as the
damage had only very seldom felled all the trees at one time, the
continuity of decaying wood was usually present even in a single patch, and
in larger units without exception.

Species indicating old-growth forest characteristics, such as Lobaria
pulmonaria and Lobaria scrobiculata were abundant in the area. Haploporus
odorus was observed 14 times. Also e.g. Phellinus chrysoloma, Phellinus
nigrolimitatus, Phellinus viticola, Phlebia centrifuga, Fomitopsis rosea,
Amylocystis lapponica and Leptoporus mollis were found throughout the area.
Skeletocutis odora and Cystostereum murraii were also observed.

Perisoreus infaustus is very common throughout the area, and Tetrao
urogallus, Bonasa bonasia,Lagopus lagopus, Buteo lagopus, Corvus corax and
Dryocopus martius were also seen.

On top of PjŠsisara fjell, fjell-type vegetation is already present, e.g.
Arctostaphylos alpina was common.

3.4.3. PEATLANDS

Peatlands were classified in this survey only according to the
simple classification given below.

Pine fens   48
Treeless fens   52
Treeless eutrophic fens   <1

Most of the peatlands were located in a small-scale mosaic in between the
forested lands.

The dominant type of pine fen was low-sedge, S. papillosum pine fen, but
also various tall-sedge pine fens were quite typical. Sphagnum fuscum pine
bogs were found only a few times. One small-sized eutrophic pine fen was
also found.

Regarding the treeless fens, both tall-sedge fens and low-sedge fens were
typical, whereas small-sized eutrophic fens were found only infrequently.
Both Scorpidium type and Warnstorfii type were present.

Many of the pine bogs and fens were characterized by vascular plants
indicating a relatively high nutrient level, e.g. Selaginella selaginoides,
Tofieldia pusilla and Trichophorum alpinum  were present in nearly half of
these peatlands. Also Molinia caerulaea was common.

3.4.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   97
Relatively untouched   3
Altered   <1

As noted already, the vast majority of the area was without any visible
signs of human influence.

A few low-intensity selective loggings were noted in the area, mainly along
the Rivers Kuvdensa and Sirman, and on the northern shore, quite near to
Lake Ribe. Most of these loggings had been performed several decades ago,
and the stumps were highly decayed already now. There was a fishing cabin
on the shore of the River Sirman, as well as an old camping site on the
shore of Lake Ribe, so it is likely that some of the logging there was due
to hunting and fishing activities.

On the northern and eastern sides the area was surrounded by recent clear-
cuts. The northern border between the untouched forest area and clear-cut
area constitutes the northern border of the survey area. The only clear-cut
area seen near the eastern border was located in the south-eastern side of
the PjŠsisara fjell. However, this few years old clear-cut of about 20
hectares seemed to be only a fragment within the intact area, and the
actual boundary of the clear-cut area was located somewhat furthermore east
of the area surveyed.

There was no evidence of slash and burn cultivation. There is a
triangulation tower on the top of PjŠsisara fjell.

3.5. SUBAREA II: FJELL LUNAS (by Otto
Miettinen)

The area was bordered to the south by PaanajŠrvi National Park and to the
north by River Sirman. Lunas fjell is to be found in the western part of
the area.

3.5.1. GENERAL FEATURES

The variation in altitude was quite remarkable in this subarea: from 100 m
to 495 m (Lunas fjell). The landscape consisted of high hills and the
valleys between them, and was therefore quite distinct. Also typical for
the subarea were many smaller and larger lakes (e.g. Lakes Latva and
Naruma). Small lakes and open or sparsely forested mires (mires constituted
13 % of the area) occurred on the hillsides and -tops. Other northern
boreal features were e.g. the abundance of swamps (particularly paludified
spruce forests) and the specimen of Ledum palustre on mineral soils.

3.5.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   <1
Dry sites   1
Dryish sites   26
Moist sites   57
Rich sites   3
Very rich sites   <1
Spruce swamps   13

The forest structure types of densely forested patches were
distributed as follows.

Pine forests   33
   Evenly-structured   8
   Unevenly-structured   24
   Non-pyrogenous   <1

Spruce forests   57
   Mature spruce forest   6
   Old spruce forest   8
   Fire-refugia   43

Broad-leaved forests   8
Mixed even-aged forests   2
Most of the fire-refugia, spruce forests were located in a uniform area in
the middle of the survey area, and in spruce swamps throughout the area.
The area of fire-refugia spruce forests seemed at the first sight to be
fairly monotonous. The amount of spruce varied between 80-100 %, birch was
represented by 2-5 %, and willows were found mainly at the mire edges.
Aspen and pine were nearly totally absent, and even the dry sites were
occupied by fire-refugia spruce forests. In one place along the survey
route there was a 200m wide clearing caused by a recent storm, apart from
which the forest was regenerating through small-gap dynamics.

Pine forests and other post-fire forests, such as young and old spruce
forests and mixed forests, were concentrated in the southern part of the
survey area, and in the northern lake district. Pine forests appeared
typically at higher altitudes and growing on more barren soils than the
mixed stands. Spruce forests were situated more in the valleys and partly
on the mires. The mixed stands were typically regenerating after forest
fire, and the continuity of decaying large spruce and pine was often
incomplete. The decaying wood in mixed stands was thus usually hardwood and
fast-grown pine, but the amount of decaying hardwood remarkably decreases
after some decades if the forest succession continues without major
disturbances. Fire is the main factor modifying the structure of nearly all
pine forests. Non-pyrogenous old pine forests were found only at few sites
(mainly on pine bogs).

The most common types were paludified Vaccinium myrtillus spruce forest,
Vaccinium myrtillus spruce swamp, Equisetum sylvaticum spruce swamp and
Rubus chamaemorus spruce swamp.

Herb-rich, hardwood-spruce swamps were represented frequently throughout
the area, and most concentrated towards the south. They were typically
quite small and associated with brooks. Eutrophic, paludified, hardwood-
spruce forests and fern-type spruce swamps were found occasionally. Rich
forest sites were typically present as small patches connected with
nutrient-rich, brookside spruce swamps, and Filipendula ulmaria, Ribes
spicatum,Matteuccia struthiopteris and Daphne mezereum were characteristic
of these sites.

The faeces of both Ursus arctos and Rangifer tarandus fennicus were common,
and Perisoreus infaustus, Tetrao urogallus, Bonasa bonasia, Buteo lagopus
and Corvus corax were observed.

Lobaria pulmonaria is abundant in the area, but only two observations of
Lobaria scrobiculata were made.

Regarding the aphyllophorales, which are indicative of old-growth forest,
Amylocystis lapponica, Antrodia albobrunne, Fomitopsis rosea, Onnia
leporina, Phellinus chrysoloma, Phellinus ferrugineofuscus, Phellinus
nigrolimitatus, Phellinus pini, Phellinus viticola, Rigidoporus corticola
can be regarded as common in the area. Haploporus odorus was found 15
times, none of these in spruce refugia forests. Diplomitoporus crustulinus,
Gloeophyllum protractum, Junghuhnia collabens, Junghuhnia luteoalba,
Skeletocutis jelicii, Skeletocutis lenis, Skeletocutis odora, Skeletocutis
stellae, Phlebia centrifuga, Laurilia sulcata, Gloeophyllum odoratum,
Hericium coralloides and Inocutis rheades were also observed during the
survey.

3.5.3. PEATLANDS

Only little attention was paid to the peatlands of this area. The petlands
were typically quite small. The fens at the southern part of the survey
area were often eutrophic. Paludella squarrosa, Eriophorum latifolium,
Selaginella selaginoides,Tofieldia pusilla, Filipendula ulmaria, Loeskypnum
badium and Campylium stellatum were typical of many of the nutrient-rich
peatlands in the area. Many bogs were also sedgey.

3.5.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   98
Relatively untouched   2
Altered   <1

Signs of slash and burn cultivation were noted once in the southern part of
the area. Low-intensity selective cuttings (less than 20 stumps/hectare)
had been made in pine forests in some places at the southern part of the
survey area, and around the pond complex at the upper course of the River
Sirman. In the latter area there were also some places for campfires and
one fishing hut. Most of the stumps had decayed for a long time. In two
places there were new fellings being done, possibly in connection with
prospecting activities.

On the top of Lunas fjell there was a triangulation tower.

The main human impact (allthough this is somewhat speculative) was the
increased fire frequency, particularly in the northern part of the area.
This could also be seen in the lower proportion of refugia-like forests in
the area. However, the impact of anthropogenic fires is not as easily
recognized as e.g. in the Kostomuksha region; a similar landscape could
have been formed also as a result of natural disturbance dynamics.

3.6. SUBAREA III: RIVER LEVSUS (by
Otso Ovaskainen and Marjatta
Sihvonen)

This area was situated to the north-east of the PaanajŠrvi National Park.
It is bordered on the west by subarea II, on the north by the River Sirman
and Lake Ruva, and on the east by lakes Sokolo and Tsipringa. The River
Levsus flew through the area.

3.6.1. GENERAL FEATURES

This subarea was characterized by nutrient rich forest and peatland sites
and relatively intact forests. 19% of the area consisted of rich or very
rich forest sites, and nearly half of these were classified as broad-leaved
forests. Over 80% of the area was totally untouched.

The area was divided into two subareas by the River Levsus flowing through
from west to east. In both the southern and northern subareas, the
landscape was characterized by large hills (typically 200-300 meters high)
and small fens in the lower areas between the hills. The area around the
River Levsus is more flat, with large treeless fens being located on the
southern side of the river.

Most of the herb-rich areas and broad-leaved forests were concentrated in
the southern subarea, although rich forest sites were abundant also in the
northern subarea.

Evidenced human influence mainly resulted from slash and burn cultivation
and selective loggings. Quite understandably, signs of slash and burn
cultivation were seen most frequently in nutrient rich sites. Most of the
selective loggings were found near Lake Sokolozero. Excluding this pine
dominated area, the proportion of untouched forests would increase to
nearly 90%.

Forests (including the densely forested spruce swamps) covered 75% and
peatlands 25% of the area.

3.6.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   <1
Dry sites   2
Dryish sites   29
Moist sites   45
Rich sites   14
Very rich sites   5
Spruce swamps   5

The forest structure types of densely forested patches were
distributed as follows.

Pine forests   31
   Evenly-structured   3
   Unevenly-structured   28
   Non-pyrogenous   <1

Spruce forests   56
   Mature spruce forests   18
   Old spruce forests   23
   Fire-refugia   15

Broad-leaved forests   8
Mixed even-aged forests   5
In this subarea, the most striking feature was the great proportion of 
places with a high nutrient level. In various parts of the area, there were
several representative herb-rich forests of a few dozen hectares each.
However, the nutrient soils were not distributed evenly through the
subarea. The most representative and  large-scale herb-rich areas were
located within a triangle, with its corners located at the eastern side of
Lake PaanajŠrvi, the southwestern side of Lake Tsipringa and, the
southwestern side of lake Sokolozero.

The forest structure types of herb-rich forests consisted of a varied
selection of aspen and birch dominated forests all the way to fire-refugia
spruce forests. The large number of willows and aspens of remarkably large
size was indicative of a rich species diversity. Many  of the sites were
characterized by Dryopteris carthusiana or Athyrium filix-femina. Small
patches dominated by Diplazium sibiricum or Matteuccia struthiopteris were
also found. Actaea erythrocarpa was even common in many places and Actaea
spicata was seen a couple of times. Ribes spicatum and Cicerbita alpina
were common in slightly paludified places and along the brooks. All four of
the observations of Cypripedium calceolus were made in this subarea. Also
all three observations of  Lonicera caerulea subsp. pallasii were made
along the brooks of this subarea.

Although the rich forest sites might dominate the image the visitor gets
from this area, the majority of the forests in the area were of moist and
dryish types. Partly due to the presence of slash and burn cultivation, the
age distribution of both the spruce and the pine forests was somewhat
younger than that in the more remote northern areas. However, refugia-like
spruce forests were also numerous in this subarea and non-pyrogenous pine
forests were found in some dry rocky sites. One third of all the pine
forests were in a transition state towards spruce forest, if not affected
by fire or other such disturbances in the future.

Many of the moist hollows and streams were surrounded by grassy spruce
swamps, which were often very representative regarding their flora,
landscape and distribution of decaying wood.

The most common type of spruce swamp in the area was Equisetum sylvaticum
spruce swamp, forested typically by a stand of large, refugia-like trees.
The Carex globularis spruce swamps were comprised of relatively sparse,
poorly developed spruce stands. Vaccinium myrtillus and Rubus chamaemorus
spruce swamps, as well as paludified Vaccinium myrtillus spruce forests,
were found in the area only infrequently. There were quite a lot of mineral
soil sites under the process of paludification. In some places the
boundaries of open peatlands were characterized also by the presence of
running water and dense Betula nana -vegetation, which made some of the
swamps extremely difficult to traverse.

The most nutrient rich spruce swamps, such as the eutrophic, paludified,
harwood-spruce forests and herb-rich, hardwood-spruce swamps, were located
mainly in hollows, next to rich forest sites which were present on the
slopes of the hills in the southern part of the northern subarea. The tree
stands of these swamps were typically old spruce forest or fire-refugia
spruce forest, including large aspens, grey alder (Alnus incana), birch and
willow. These swamps contained a considerable amount of decaying wood of
both spruce and broad-leaved species. The eutrophic nature of the swamps is
evident from the abundance of e.g. Athyrium filix-femina and Dryopteris
expansa. Also Filipendula ulmaria, Crepis paludosa and Cicerbita alpina
occurred commonly. Diplazium sibiricum was present in two eutrophic,
paludufied, hardwood-spruce forest patches.

Perisoreus infaustus, Tetrao urogallus, Bonasa bonasia, Picoides
tridactylus, Grus grus, Glaucidium passerinum, Aegolius funereus, Anser
fabalis and Mergus serrator were noted during the survey.

Both Lobaria pulmonaria and Lobaria scrobiculata were very abundant in all
of the rich sites. Regarding aphyllophorales, Fomitopsis rosea, Phellinus
populicola, Phellinus chrysoloma, Phellinus pini and Amylocystis lapponica
were common in the area, and 26 occurrences of Haploporus odorus were
observed in the area, most of which were in rich and very rich forest
sites.

3.6.3. PEATLANDS

In addition to the total absence of human influence, the great variety of
the various types of peatlands, plant communities and landscapes increases
the value of the peatlands in the area. Large fens covered by sedges and
grasses in the areas between the hills, constituted an essential part of
the landscape, as well as the smaller spruce-pine swamps within the forest
mosaic.

The peatlands (excluding spruce swamps) were distributed as
follows.

   Pine fens   78
   Low-sedge S. papillosum pine fens   33
   Spruce-pine swamp   30
   Dwarf-shrub pine bogs   5
   Cottongrass pine bogs   4
   Sphagnum fuscum pine bog   2
   Euthropic pine fens   4

Treeless fens   20
   Low-sedge fens   12
   Tall-sedge fens   8

Treeless euthropic fens   2
The most common types of pine swamp were the sparsely forested Low-sedge S.
papillosum pine fens and the swamps covered by both spruce and pine. The
latter group, which was characterized by shrubs, included quite a diverse
variety of swamps, which were all classified here as spruce-pine swamps. In
addition to their presense on the slopes of the hills, all of the other
types of pine swamps were typically surrounded by a spruce-pine swamp
strip. Quite understandably most of the tree stands of the pine swamps
represented non-pyrogenous old pine forests. The amount of kelos was
typically 20-30% of the tree stand. With regard to the forested eutrophic
fens, small-scale eutrophic pine fens, as well as Sphagnum fuscum pine
fens, were found as patches in treeless eutrophic fens.

The treeless eutrophic fens were situated mainly in  the southern part of
the northern subarea. Several large eutrophic fens, covering a few hectares
each, were situated in the peatland area to the south of the River Levsus.
The most common types of eutrophic fens in the area were Scorpidium type
and Warnstorfii type. Also some Intermedius type eutrophic fens were
present, as well as eutrophic fens with standing water. The diversity of
peatlands, especially in the southwestern part of the area, is increased by
eutrophic fens with springs. These fens were characterized e.g. by
Paludella squarrosa, Cinclidium stygium, Loeskypnum badium, Sarmentypnum
sarmentosum and Cratoneuron commutatum.

Both Tofieldia pusilla and Selaginella selaginoides were commonly found in
the eutrophic fens. Also e.g. Eriophorum latifolium, Parnassia palustris,
Molinia caerulaea and Trichophorum alpinum characterized  the treeless
eutrophic fens and Molinia caerulaea, Trichophorum alpinum and Juniperus
communis the eutrophic pine fens. Dactylorhiza incarnata was present in a
some of the eutrophic fens, and Hammarbya paludosa was found in one
Warnstorfii type eutrophic fen. In addition to the moss species
characterizing the eutrophic fens, such as Scorpidium scorpioides,
Campylium stellatum, Limprichtia intermedia, Sphagnum warnstorfii and
Calliergon richardsonii, also e.g. Limprichtia revolvens, Scorpidium
lapponicum and Tomentypmum nites were found.

In the southeastern part of the subarea, the treeless eutrophic fens were
often associated with mesotrophic or eutrophic, grassy tall-sedge fens or
grassy flark fens with standing water. In addition to tall-sedge species,
these were characterized by indicators of mesotrophy or eutrophy, such as
Molinia caerulea and Potentilla erecta. In some places Trichophorum
alpinum, Selaginella selaginoides and Tofieldia pusilla were also present,
as well as Scorpidium scorpioides in those places where standing water was
present. Equisetum palustre was also abundant in some places and Carex
dioica and Juncus stygius were present on the mesotrophic fens with
standing water.

Low-sedge fens are to be found in the northern part of the subarea,
however, this part is dominated by the vegetation of wet pine peat-moors.

The only signs of human influence were two hay barns, which were found on
one of the mesotrophic fens with sedge vegetation in the southeastern part
of the subarea.

3.6.4 HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   81
Relatively untouched   6
Altered   13

The effect from the old PaanajŠrvi village is seen in some places as old
slash and burn sites (4% of the area). Selective loggings have been
performed, mostly near to the water routes, affecting 15% of the area.

Most of the slash and burn sites were concentrated in the area on the
southern side of the River Levsus due to the rich soil conditions and
relatively short distance from the old settlement. The age of the forest
which had grown since the cessation of slash and burn cultivation was
studied in some places by drilling a sample core from the oldest pines in
the forest, and most of these sites were thus dated to the middle of the
last century. It also seemed that slash and burn activities had increased
the fire frequency somewhat at that time.

The loggings were concentrated mainly in the pine dominated forests on the
western side of Lake Sokolozero. Outside this area, there had only been any
kind of loggings in less than 8% of the area. The most intensive loggings
were also concentrated in the Sokolozero area, and the structure of the
forests there had clearly changed to a more evenly-structured type.

The waterlogged forest and other signs of regulation of the water bodies
conducted in the 1960Õs can be seen on the shore of Lake Sokolozero.

3. 7. SUBAREA IV: LAKE TSIPRINGA (by
Jouni Nissinen)

The area was located around Lake Tsipringa, to the east of the PaanajŠrvi
National Park, and extends the furthest to the south of the lake.

3.7.1. GENERAL FEATURES

The area surveyed consisted roughly of three smaller subareas, namely the
southern, middle and northern subareas.

The southern and northern areas were humid lowlands, with partly spruce-
dominated forests. In the middle there was a pine-dominated area around a
fjell-like wooded hill. The southern part of the hill was dominated by a
mosaic of pine bogs  and untouched spruce forests. The northern part of the
hill was dominated by forests on mineral soils, part of which were very
rich in nutrients, and even small-scale herb-rich forests were seen. The
nutrient-rich area, covering parts of both the Oulanka National Park on the
Finnish side and the PaanajŠrvi National Park on the Russian side, thus
continues somewhat to the east of the park, so that its influence was still
clearly detectable in the southwestern parts of the subarea.

The central part consisted mainly of untouched pine forests on dry sites,
however in the lower areas around some of the lakes, spruce was the
dominant tree species.

Small, oligo-mesotrophic pine bogs were found throughout the whole area.
Although their total area was small, they added considerably to the
habitat- and species diversity e.g. due to the edge-effect.

Trees covered with beard lichens (Usnea spp., Bryoria spp. and Alectoria
spp.) were very common throughout the whole area.

Unlike the other subareas, most of this area has been altered by man.
Selective loggings have been common in the pine dominated forests of the
area, and slash and burn cultivation has also occurred. The shores of Lke
Tsipringa (Kumskoje reservoir) are still quite ng. The level of the lake
was raised 20 years ago byeveral meters, and waterlogged forests are now to
be seen along the lakeside.

Forests (including the densely forested spruce swamps) covered 83% and
peatlands 17% of the area.

3.7.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   1
Dry sites   17
Dryish sites   32
Moist sites   39
Rich sites   9
Very rich sites   1
Spruce swamps   2

The forest structure types of densely forested patches were
distributed as follows.

Pine forests   61
   Evenly-structured   11
   Unevenly-structured   50
   Non-pyrogenous   <1

Spruce forests   30
Broad-leaved forests   5
Mixed even-aged forests   4
The dominance of pine forests in the table above is partly technical; some
of the forests which would in other parts of the report have been
classified as spruce forests, are here classified as pine forests if they
include a significant amount of aihkis.

Allthough signs of fire can be seen as fire scars on aihki-pines almost
everywhere in the subarea, the total area destroyed by intensive fire is
only a few hectares. The most recent fire scars are only a few years old.
No areas which had clearly been felled by storm were noted.

The amount of broad-leaved trees varied considerably. Birch was typically
represented by 10-15 % of the tree stands. Aspen and willow were
distributed sporadically, though in some cases very abundantly. On former
slash and burn sites,  aspen sometimes constituted up to 70 % of the tree
stand.

The rich forest sites and rich spruce swamps were typified by e.g.
Gymnocarpium dryopteris, Filipendula ulmaria, Dryopteris carthusiana,
Thelypteris phegopteris, Rubus idaeus and Daphne mezereum.

The distribution of decaying wood also varied considerably according to the
forest type and structure in question. However, the amount of decaying wood
was abundant throughout most of the area.

Aihkis were seen nearly everywhere, excluding the evenly-structured pine
forests, however, their distribution was quite uneven.

Most of the densely forested spruce swamps were either Equisetum sylvaticum
spruce swamps or Rubus chamaemorus spruce swamps.

Tetrao urogallus and Dryocopus martius were seen during the survey.

Regarding lichens, Lobaria pulmonaria was noted in many parts of the area,
and the polyporefungi Haploporus odorus, Phellinus lundellii, Phellinus
pini, Phellinus chrysoloma, Phellinus viticola, Fomitopsis rosea and
Inocutis rheades were also recorded.

3.7.3. PEATLANDS

Excluding spruce swamps, peatlands (17 % of the total survey
area) were classified as follows.

Pine bogs   65
   Tall-sedge pine fens   42
   Dwarf-shrub pine bogs   11
   Cottongrass pine bogs   7
   Spruce-pine swamps   4
   Euthrophic pine fens   0.5

Treeless fens   35
   Tall-sedge fens   7
   Low-sedge fens   28

Many of the fens were characterized by indicators of mesotrophy. The small-
sized swamps on brooksides were almost without exception grassy.

Most of the peatlands in the area were in a natural state, although some of
them had,  however, been used for haymaking  (Carex spp.), indicated by
old, almost collapsed barns. On some peatlands  some remnants from the
Second World War could be seen, e.g. fallen telephone lines.

3.7.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows:
Untouched   9
Relatively untouched   52
Altered   39

Human influence of some kind could be seen throughout the main part of the
area but its intensity varied considerably. The mildest human impact was
represented by single stumps, but the more typical level of selective
cuttings was about 20-30 stumps/ha. The amount of time since the selective
cuttings also varied.

The small proportion of the area which remained totally untouched can be
explained by the proximity of the villages and by the good water routes.

Slash and burn cultivation forests, characterized by their abundance of 
broad-leaved trees, were represented by 7 % of the area.

The greatest and most recent human impact has been the constructions made
by the military. The oldest of these originate from the Second World War
and the newest ones have been made just recently.

3.8. SUBAREA V: RIVER TAVA (by Susanna
Anttila)

This area was located to the southeast of the PaanajŠrvi National Park, and
is crossed by the River Tava.

3.8.1. GENERAL FEATURES

The landscape of this subarea was dominated by densely forested high hills
and the valleys in between, with rivers and brooks being common in the
valleys. Excluding the densely forested spruce swamps, peatlands covered
only 6% of the area. Nearly all of these were small, only one aapa-mire, in
the valley of river Tava, was noted during the survey.

3.8.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   0
Dry sites   <1
Dryish sites   32
Moist sites   59
Rich sites   2
Very rich sites   <1
Spruce swamps   7

The forest structure types of densely forested patches were
distributed as follows:
Pine forests   33
   Evenly-structured   11
   Unevenly-structured   22
   Non-pyrogenous   -

Spruce forests   66
   Mature and old spruce forests   54
   Fire refugia   12

Broad-leaved forests   1
Mixed even-aged forests   <1
The forests were typically quite rich in nutrients, with moist forest sites
dominating. Herb-rich forests were seen on one hillside, immediately to the
north of the River Tava and rich forest sites were abundant on the
hillsides. The amount of these sites might have been slightly
underestimated in the table above because of their small size. Dry sites
were present only to the south of the River Tava.

Most of the forests in the subarea were untouched spruce forests or pine
forests in a transiton state towards spruce forest. In these forests, birch
was represented by at least 5%, typically by 10 % and in many places by
even more. A pure birch forest of one hectare was found in one old forest
fire area. A small number of aspen were present at most of the sites. On
the nutrient-rich sites, aspen was typically abundant and on some small-
sized sites it was the dominant tree species. The aspens were typically
quite large, DBH varying from 35 cm to 55 cm. Especially on the sites
richest in nutrients, there were also willows of considerable size, which
were mostly single, but in some places abundant.

Spruce swamps were especially frequenton the hillsides and along the
brooks. The most typical type was Equisetum sylvaticum spruce swamp, but
herb-rich hardwood-spruce swamps, Rubus chamaemorus spruce swamps and Carex
globularis spruce swamps were also quite common, these last ones being
associated with treeless fens and pine bogs. Some patches of eutrophic,
paludified hardwood-spruce forest characterized e.g. by Cicerbita alpina
were also found.

On the southern side of the River Tava, untouched pine forests were found,
and large aihkis and kelos were abundant in the area. The frequency and
intensity of forest fires had varied, resulting in a variety of evenly-
structured and unevenly-structured pine forests.

Some of the forestlands were located in higher areas (over 300 meter),
showing a more sparse structure than those in the valleys. On the top of
Kargantsi hill, mountain birch was dominant.

A small survey was also made south from the River Paros. Near the
riverside, the forest was young and stumps were abundant. On the eastern
side of the road, there was a deep esker formation. The hill on the western
side of the road was spruce dominated forest in a nearly natural state
though a few very old, large and rotten stumps could still be seen as a
result of selective cuttings. In spite of the old loggings, dead wood was
very abundant.

Regarding the old-growth forest indicator species, Lobaria pulmonaria,
Phellinus nigrolimitatus, Haploporus odorus, Phellinus ferrugineofuscus,
Fomitopsis rosea, Amylocystis lapponica, Phellinus chrysoloma, Phellinus
lundellii, Phellinus populicola and Phlebia centrifuga were observed.

3.8.3. PEATLANDS

The peatlands (excluding spruce swamps), which covered only 6%
of the total area, were distributed as follows.

Pine bogs   51
Treeless fens   49

Pine bogs and treeless fens were typically seen on the tops of the larger
hills (mainly on the western side of the road) and on the shores of small
lakes. While larger peatlands were not seen during the survey, there was a
rich variety of mire-forest mosaic. Pine bogs were typically dwarf-shrub
pine bogs, and only a few Sphagnum fuscum pine bogs were seen. Tall-sedge
and low-sedge fens were the main fen types recorded.

Characteristic both to pine bogs and treeless fens was the small-scale
variation of richness in nutrients, indicated e.g. by Selaginella
selaginoides, Tofieldia pusilla, Sphagnum warnstorfii, Paludella squarrosa
and Molinia caerulea.

3.8.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   71
Relatively untouched   15
Altered   12
Recent clear-cutting   2

Most of the loggings had been performed several decades ago, and the stumps
were already thoroughly rotted. However, the recent clear-cuttings are
approaching the area from the south.

4. VIENA KARELIA

4.1 THE AREA

The surveyed area consisted of various separate parts connected either to
the Kostamuksha Nature Reserve or the Kalevala National Park. The
Kostamuksha Nature Reserve, which consists of 47 500 hectares, was
established in 1983, and in 1990 the Kostamuksha Nature Reserve was joined
to the Nature Reserve Friendship which consists of six different sites in
Russia and Finland. The Kalevala National Park is to be established in the
near future.

The Viena Karelia area - here considered as the combined old-growth forest
area consisting of the Kalevala National Park, the Kostamuksha Nature
Reserve and the remaining old-growth forest areas around these - consists
of more than 300 000 hectares. Although most of the forests in Viena
Karelia can be characterized as intact, human influence was more evident
than in the PaanajŠrvi area. This was due to the still viable, several
hundred years old villages which give the area an exceptionally high
cultural value.

The total area of 108 000 hectares surveyed in summer 1997 is shown in the
attached maps.

4.2. GENERAL FEATURES

4.2.1. LANDSCAPE AND SOIL

The area is mainly located on a watershed and its slopes. The western part
of the area, which is located against the Finnish border, is higher, the
highest point, with an altitude of 290 meters, is inside the Kostamuksha
Nature Reserve. Towards the east, the landscape gets lower, with Lake
Kuitti being at an altitude of 102 meters and Lake Njuk at 134 meters.

The western part of the Kalevala National Park consists mainly of a mosaic
of forest and mires. The eastern part of the park is more hilly and the
relative variation in altitudes is greater. The landscape of the
Kostamuksha Nature Reserve is dominated by Lake Kamennoe and the rather
hilly landscape around it. The greatest relative heights (up to 90 meters)
of Viena Karelia are found within the reserve.

Although the shapes of the landscape features are rounded due to the ice
age, there are numerous relatively steep slopes, ravines and precipices in
the area.

The baserock of the area is mainly acidic, and the soil cover is mainly
moraine. The organic covering varies from a very thin or even absent layer
on the high, cliffy hilltops, to the relatively thick peat of some mires.
The soils are mainly quite poor, but in some parts, e.g. to the southeast
of Lake Maxim and northeast of the River Livo, there are some richer areas.
The mires are mainly oligotrophic, small aapa-mires, but some richer fens
and fen-like mires are also found. Practically all mires are in a natural
state.

4.2.2. CLIMATE

Compared to the climate in the PaanajŠrvi area, the winters here are
milder, the summers are relatively warm and changes in temperature are
typically small. At the end of  the quite long winter (175-185 days), the
snow cover is typically 70-80 cm, though somewhat deeper in the western
part, where it reaches 120 cm in many winters.

In the valleys of the big lakes, such as Upper Kuitti, Kamennoe and Njuk,
the regulating effect of a large water body can be noticed.

4.2.3. VEGETATION

The forests are mainly middle boreal, though with many northern features.
As compared to more southern areas, or to the PaanajŠrvi area, the
diversity of the flora is relatively poor here. This is mostly due to the
poor soil conditions, with dryish, moist and dry sites predominating and
rich sites being found only seldomly.

A total number of 395 vascular plant species have been found inside the
Kostamuksha Nature Reserve, 9 of which are classified as threatened
according to the Red Data Book of Karelia [Lindholm et al. 1997]. A total
number of 403 vascular plant species have been found within Kaleval
National Park, 10 of which are classified as threatened according to the
Red Data Book of Karelia [Gromtshev et. al.1997].

4.2.4. HISTORY OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Many villages in the area have been inhabited for about 500 years. When the
villages have grown too big to support all their inhabitants, some families
have built new dwelling sites in the wilderness. Some of these new
settlements have then grown into small villages, which were mostly
abandoned at the end of the 1960«s, when they were "liquidated" by the
Soviet regime.

In most parts of the area, the forests have remained untouched or almost
untouched. The areas closest to the villages have been utilized as a source
of fire and construction wood, and some construction wood has also been
taken from areas along water courses and roads.

During the years 1926 - c. 1935, some larger scale commercial selective
cuttings have taken place along the big water courses. Resin has been
tapped in relatively large areas, also mainly along the water courses in
areas both within and adjacent to the Kalevala National park and also in
areas to the east of the Kostamuksha Nature Reserve.

New loggings, made in the 1980«s and 1990«s, are concentrated along the
roads. Some of the fellings have been made by local leshose or local
people, the latter only on a very small scale. Most of the local large
clearcuttings were made during the Soviet era. After the collapse of the
Soviet Union, local forestry has been almost nonexistant.

During the last 5 years, loggings have mainly been performed by Finnish
enterprises. All recent loggings have consisted of large or relatively
large clearcuttings, but even these loggings involve only a very small part
of the total area.

In general there are very few roads, and the paths that formerly lead from
one village to another have mostly disappeared.

The slash and burn method for clearing fields has been quite rare in most
of this area, and in some parts has newer been practised, though. Some
remains of meadows and fields can be found along the lake shores and
rivers.

4.2.5. SIGNIFICANCE FOR SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH

One of the main incentives for establishing the Nature Reserve Friendship
was to improve scientific co-operation between Karelia and Finland. The
coordinators of the cooperative research have been the Research Centre of
the Friendship Park on the Finnish side, and the Kostamuksha Nature
Reserve, together with the Karelian Research Centre on the Russian side. In
addition, several universities and research institutes have participated
the co-operation. The main topics of research have been surveys of
ecosystems, fauna and flora. Also the environmental impact of the
Kostamuksha iron mine and refinery have been studied intensively. For more
information on the research made in the Kostamuksha Nature Reserve, the
reader is referred to [Lindholm et al. 1997] and to the further references
therein.

A lot of studies of the Kalevala park area have also been performed -
especially recently during the process of establishing the park. The
results of the inventories carried out by the Russian NGOs are compiled in
[Jaroshenko 1997] and the ones carried out by authorities in [Gromtsev et
al. 1997]. In addition to the biological studies, a lot of culturally
orientated studies have also been made.

4.2.6. CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL
SIGNIFICANCE

Everyday life has been, and still is, strongly dependent upon and tied to
the forest. The same can be said about culture and spirituality. The Viena
Karelia villages are the birth place of the Kalevala - epic. In the
villages inside the forthcoming Kalevala National Park, especially
Voknavolok and Sudnozero, this tradition is echoed through the daily life
and customs. Forests are still very important for the local people, not
only as a source of wood, mushrooms and berries, but as the source of life
and a place for recreation. The change, which large clearcuttings have
wrought upon the landscape is considered as harmful and depressing by the
people of the area.

The architecture of the buildings and the structure of the villages has
remained unchanged from that of the beginning of the century. At that time
there were about 5000 people living in the area of the Kalevala park,
although now there are only about 600 people living there. Many practical
skills and forms of applied arts are practised as they have been for a long
time. The villages are self sufficient for example in carpentry and other
building skills, boat making and processing local foodstuffs such as
mushrooms, berries and milk.

The area has always had strong connections with Finland (formerly part of
Sweden). The position of the border line between Russia (Soviet Union) and
Finland (Sweden) has remained as it now is for 600 years, only the
effectiveness of the border has varied.

Viena Karelia has always been a remote borderland, sometimes forgotten,
sometimes known as a place to hide from enemies. Forest dependent culture
and remoteness have so far saved the vast forests of the area.

4.3. THE AREA SURVEYED IN SUMMER 1997

The survey area of 108 000 hectares was divided into the following nine
subareas, which are shown in the attached maps.

¥   Subarea I: River Livo. Total area 26 000 hectares. Surveyed by
Juho Pennanen, Jarmo Pyykkš, Jouni Nissinen and Jan Dierks. Some
aphyllophorale observations from this subarea from an earlier
study by Mariko Lindgren are included.

¥   Subarea II: Lake Luva. Total area 9 000 hectares. Surveyed by
Juho Pennanen and Suvi Vanhanen.
¥   Subarea III: Lake Kiimas. Total area 11 000 hectares
(excluding Lake Kiimas). Surveyed by Otto Miettinen, Minna
Pappila and Jan Dierks.
¥   Subarea IV: Lake Maksim. Total area 9 500 hectares. Surveyed
by Otto Miettinen and Otso Ovaskainen.
¥   Subarea V: Lake Kaita. Total area 13 500 hectares. Surveyed by
Jarmo Pyykkš and Maiju Pasanen.
¥   Subarea VI: Lake SarijŠrvi. Total area 13 000 hectares.
Surveyed by Juho Pennanen, Mari Niemi, Anja Kaunisto, Jouni
Nissinen and Riina Ala-Risku.
¥   Subarea VII: Lake Njuk. Total area 5 500 hectares Surveyed by
Olli-Pekka Tikkanen, Aulikki Lipponen and Riina Ala-Risku.
¥   Subarea VIII: River Pisto. Total area 13 000 hectares
(excluding the watercoarse of the River Pisto). Surveyed by Jan
Kunnas and Jouni Nissinen.
¥   Subarea IX: Mšlkkš peninsula. Total area 7 500 hectares.
Surveyed by Otto Miettinen.

4.3.1. FORESTS

As the surveyed area consists of separate subareas located in various parts
of Viena Karelia, the figures below given for the distribution for the
forest site types and forest structure types, as well for human influence,
should be considered only as a rough description of the average situation
in the study area.

As the study lines for Mšlkkš peninsula (subarea IX) were too
short to give statistically reliable data, the peninsula is
excluded in the figures below.

The vegetation types (including densely forested spruce swamps)
of the whole survey area are distributed as follows.

Barren sites   <1
Dry sites   5
Dryish sites   45
Moist sites   39
Rich sites   1
Very rich sites   -
Spruce swamps   9

The forest structure types of densely forested patches were
distributed in the survey area as follows:
Pine forests   63
   Evenly-structured   27
   Unevenly-structured   36
   Non-pyrogenous   <1

Spruce forests   29
   Mature spruce forests   11
   Old spruce forests   10
   Fire-refugia   8

Broad-leaved forests   1
Mixed even-aged forests   6
Thus most of the area is covered by pine dominated, dryish forest sites.
However, there is quite a lot of local variation, as will be seen from the
figures for the subareas.

Quite large areas have been affected by forest fires at different times.
Fires of various intensities and various frequencies have given rise to
both even- and unevenly-structured, pine dominated forests. Especially in
subareas II  (Lake Luva) and III (Lake Kiimas), the proportion of old,
unevenly-structured pines forests was large. The oldest living pines in the
area are 600-700 years old, and up to 1 meter in diameter.

Spruce is the dominant species typically only in smaller patches. Only in
subarea V (Lake Kaita), which is located south-east of the Kostamuksha
Nature Reserve, was spruce the dominant species in the whole area. In
addition to subarea V, a considerable amount of old spruce refugia can be
found in subareas I ( River Livo), IV (Lake Maxim) and VI (Lake SarijŠrvi).

Rich forest sites were practically absent from the survey area, with the
exception of subareas V (Lake Kaita) and VIII (River Pisto), where the
proportion of rich sites was 2-3% of the area. Because of the generally
poor soil conditions of the area, these small-sized rich forest patches
should be considered as highly valuable.

4.3.2. DECAYING WOOD

The amount and distribution of decaying wood was estimated by the transect
method described in section 2.2. The total length of thread set into the
forest was 6 289 m, giving the10 m wide rectangle-shaped transects a total
area of about 6,3 hectares. Again, this area should be kept in mind when
considering the reliability of the given figures.

The total amount of decaying wood was found to be 541 (diameter > 5 cm)
trunks per hectare, of which 369 were lying on the ground and 172 standing.
The size distribution of decaying wood (trunks/ha) was found to be as
follows:

Diameter   On ground   Standing   Total

5-9   114.0   61.5   175.5
10-19   133.6   57.4   191.0
20-29   92.4   29.6   122.0
30-39   23.5   17.6   41.2
40-49   4.1   4.1   8.3
50-   1.1   1.7   2.9

Total   368.7   172.0   540.8

The rest of the figures are again given only for trunks with diameter > 10
cm. The total number of such trunks was 365 per hectare, 255 of which were
lying on the ground and 110 standing.

The spatial distribution of decaying wood, i.e. the percentage shares of
the various dead wood (diameter > 10 cm) density levels, was found to be as
follows:

Trunks/ha   On ground   Standing   Total
  
<50   4   16   4
50-99   3   48   1
100-199   35   13   12
200-299   37   23   21
300-399   4   -   32
400-499   9   -   13
>500   8   -   17
Thus the most typical site included some 300-400 dead trunks per hectare,
50-100 of which were standing. Sites with more than 400 trunks per hectare
were represented by 30% of the forested area and sites with in excess of
more than 500 by 17%.

The tree species distribution of the identifiable decaying wood
(percentages of the total amount) was found to be as follows:

Species   On ground   Standing   Total
  
Pine   59   56   58
Spuce   15   21   17
Birch   21   20   21
Aspen   3   2   3
Willow   2   1   1
However, 18% of the decaying wood lying on the ground remained unidentified
because of its advanced state of decay, and these were excluded from the
table above. As could be expected, pine clearly dominated here. Typically,
as it becomes kelo-like, it also decays a lot slower than the other
species, its proportion of the dead trees is maybe even greater than its
proportion of the living trees.

The decay stage distribution of decaying wood (percentages of the total
amount) was found to be as follows:

Decay stage   On ground   Standing   Total
  
G/S 1   3   22   9
G/S 2   21   39   26
G/S 3   22   24   23
G/S 4   28   9   22
G/S 5   26   6   20
Again, the intact nature of the forests is reflected in the fact that all
the decaying classes are well represented. The low proportion of G1 trunks
is more a question of definition of the decay classes than of lack of
recently fallen trunks - a single pine may move from G1 to G2 after just a
few years, whereas it may stay in G3, for example, for one hundred years.

The average density of old pines and aihkis was found to be 44 per hectare,
the density of aspens 16 per hectare and the density of willows about 10
per hectare. The detailed size distribution of these key trees was found to
be as follows (trees/ha):

Diameter   Old pines   Aihkis   Old pines+aihkis   Aspens   Willows
  
10-19   0.3   -   0.3   6.0   7.6
20-29   3.0   0.6   3.6   5.6   1.0
30-39   11.8   4.0   15.8   3.7   0.6
40-49   10.0   5.9   15.9   0.5   0.3
50-59   1.7   4.6   6.3   0.2   -
>60   -   2.4   2.4   -   -

Total   26.9   17.5   44.4   15.9   9.5
The spatial distribution of living key trees, i.e. the percentage
proportions of various living key tree density levels, was found to be as
follows:

Trees/ha   Old pines   Aihkis   Old pines+aihkis   Aspens   Willows
  
0      19   29   10   62   65
1-20   34   36   32   15   17
20-39   20   19   13   3   9
40-59   11   6   13   12   7
>60   17   10   32   9   -
In the pine dominated Vienansalo area, some old pines or aihkis were
present nearly everywhere, and only 10 % of the forested area did not
include any of these. However, as a result of the quite intensive forest
fire history, in 29% of the area no clear aihkis were found. Aspens were
typically concentrated on nutrient-rich sites: nearly two thirds of the
area did not contain any aspens, whereas one fifth contained more than 40
aspens per hectare. Willows were again distributed relatively evenly.

4.3.3. PEATLANDS

Only very general remarks about the peatlands in the study area were made,
the majority of which consisted of oligotrophic fens and pine bogs. Only in
subareas V (Lake Kaita) and VI (Lake SarijŠrvi) was a considerable amount
of mesotrophic peatlands found.

Peatlands typically occupied some 10-25% of the area, with the exception of
the subarea VI, where the proportion of peatlands was as high as 39% of the
area.

4.3.4. WATER SYSTEMS

There were four major watercourses in the Kalevala park area: the
watercourse of Sudnozero, which runs from the west, the watercourses of
Pistojoki and Vuonnisjoki, which run from the north and the watercourses of
the River Livo - River Tollo, which run from the south-west and west
respectively.

To the east of the Kostamuksha Nature Reserve, the landscape was
characterized by a chain of four big lakes: the waters of Lake Kamennoe
flew through the River Kamennaja first to Lake Luva, then to Lake Kiimas
and finally to Lake Njuk.

Waters on the watershed along the Finnish border consisted mainly of small
lakes and ponds, often with marshy edges.

Water in the lakes and streams was typically clear and colourless.

4.3.5. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed in the survey area
as follows.

Untouched   63
Relatively untouched   14
Altered   23

As the aim of the survey was to concentrate on previously less well-known
areas, the survey area includes neither the central parts of the
forthcoming Kalevala National Park nor the Kostamkuksha Nature Reserve. The
subareas are located rather on the boundary zone of the combined old-growth
forest area. As current clear-cuttings are approaching the untouched area
through the boundary zone, the figures given above for the intactness of
the study area are probably slight underestimates when considering the
intactness of the whole of Viena Karelia.

4.3.6. SPECIES

A lot of studies on the fauna and flora of the district have been done, 
e.g. Lindholm et al. (1997) and the references therein. During this survey,
only sporadic observations were made. Regarding aphyllophorale, the list
below includes the species observed in subarea I during an earlier study by
Mariko Lindgren.

Birds
¥   Anser fabalis. Two observations
¥   Buteo lagopus. Two observations
¥   Bonasa bonasia. Several observations.
¥   Corvus corax. Several observations
¥   Cygnus cygnus. Several nesting
¥   Grus grus. One observation
¥   Perisoreus infaustus. Several observations
¥   Tetrao urogallus. Several observations

Mammals
¥   Castor canadensis. Several sites.
¥   Rangifer tarandus fennicus. Several small herds (up to 6
animals) seen.
¥   Ursus arctos. Two observations, faeces and tracks common.

Lichens
¥   Lobaria pulmonaria. Common throughout the whole area.

Aphyllophorales
¥   Amylocystis lapponica
¥   Amyloporia crassa
¥   Antrodia albobrunnea. 3 specimens.
¥   Antrodia primaeva
¥   Antrodiella parasitica
¥   Asterodon ferruginosus
¥   Dichomitus squalens
¥   Fomitopsis rosea
¥   Haploporus odorus. 1 specimen.
¥   Hericium coralloides
¥   Inonotus rheades
¥   Junghuhnia collabens
¥   Junghuhnia luteoalba
¥   Laurilia sulcata
¥   Leptoporus mollis
¥   Oligoporus sericeomollis
¥   Onnia leporina
¥   Perenniporia subacida
¥   Phellinus chrysoloma. Several specimens.
¥   Phellinus ferrugineofuscus
¥   Phellinus lundellii
¥   Phellinus nigrolimitatus
¥   Phellinus pini. Several specimens.
¥   Phellinus populicola. Several specimens.
¥   Phellinus viticola. Several specimens.
¥   Phlebia centrifuga
¥   Postia placenta
¥   Rigidoporus corticola
¥   Skeletocutis ÔbrevisporaÕ (a species which has not yet been
scientifically described)
¥   Skeletocutis kuehneri
¥   Skeletocutis lenis. 4 observations.
¥   Skeletocutis odora
¥   Trechispora mollusca
¥   Trichaptum laricinum
¥   Trichaptum pargamenum

4.3.7. THE NATURE CONSERVATIONAL VALUE OF
THE AREA

As the majority of the area is untouched, i.e. without any visible signs of
human activity, the nature conservational value of the are in general is
clear.

As compared to the Kostamuksha Nature Reserve, as well as to the area of
the forthcoming Kalevala National Park, some complementary features are
present in the study area, e.g. the large amount of old spruce refugia
found in subareas I ( River Livo), IV (Lake Maxim), V (Lake Kaita) and VI
(Lake SarijŠrvi), as well as the relatively rich soil in subareas V and
VIII (River Pisto) are worth of mention.

Although fragmented by some recent clear-cuttings, the connection between
the Kostamuksha Nature Reserve and the forthcoming Kalevala National Park
is still intact. This area, represented by subarea I (River Livo), and the
border zone to the west of the subarea, serves as an ecological corridor
connecting the two large old-growth forest areas.

Especially considering subareas VIII (River Pisto) and IX (Mšlkkš
peninsula), the cultural value of the area should also be considered. A
part of the forests in these areas has traditionally been utilized for
firewood and construction timber by the nearby villages (mainly Voknavolok
and Vuonnitsa), however, some untouched forest is also found. In order to
secure both the cultural and ecological continuities of the area, it would
be necessary to restrict the utilization of the area also in the future to
small-scale local usage in the traditionally utilized areas.

4.4. SUBAREA I: RIVER LIVO (by Juho
Pennanen)

This area was located on the northern side of the Vartius-Kostamuksha road,
as a corridor between the Kostamuksha Nature Reserve and the Kalevala
National Park. The River Livo flew through the area.

4.4.1. GENERAL FEATURES

Seventy seven percent of the sites along the study lines were closed
forests (later ÓforestsÓ, covering forests on mineral soil, spruce swamps
except for spruce fens, and thin-peated pine bogs). Small lakes were
numerous throughout the area and small rivers and brooks were also very
common, often with rapids and very clear water.

4.4.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   -
Dry sites   5
Dryish sites   34
Moist sites   45
Rich sites   <1
Very rich sites   -
Spruce swamps   15

The distribution of forest structure types is given below.

Pine forests   57
   Evenly-structured   32
   Unevenly-structured   25
   Non-pyrogenous   -

Spruce forests   36
   Mature and old spruce forests   26
   Fire-refugia   10

Broad-leaved forests   <1
Mixed even-aged forests   7
The northernmost part of the area is hilly and topographically varied. In
the central parts of the area, along the rivers Kamenka, Mato and Livo, the
vegetation is dominated by poorer types. This is where most of the dry
sites occur, and, accordingly, forest fires have been most frequent in
these central areas. In the southernmost sub-area, near the Kostamuksha
Nature Reserve, the landscape consists of a mosaic of fens, bogs and
forests, without large-scale topografic variation. Spruce swamps are common
in the area, 10% of which  were classified as rich in nutrients, and e.g.
Daphne mezereum, Prunus padus and Athyrium filix-femina were found in them.

The area to the west of the intersection of the Vuokinjoki road and the
River Livo stands out from the rest of the area in general.
Geomorphologically the subarea possesses coarse-grained glaciofluvial
soils. Dryish and dry sites predominate over the mesic ones, with dry sites
covering 15 % of the study lines. Fens, bogs and swamps only account for 5
% of vegetation.

No particular structural type of forest stand can be said to dominate the
forest landscape. Slightly less than 60 % of the forests were pine-
dominated, with a little more than half of these being even-aged, 80 to 200
years old. Uneven-aged pine forests covered 25 % of the forest sites and
about 40 % of the forests were spruce-dominated. 10 % of all the forests
were fire-refugia as judged by the composition of living and dead tree
layers. Particularly in the southernmost subarea, where the forest
landscape is broken up by fens, refugia-type forests were common on mineral
soils too. Generally, in the south the forests were more spruce dominated,
the proportion which was dominated by deciduous trees was around 10 % and 
about 7 % of forests contained 25 % or more deciduous trees. Only small
isolated patches were birch-dominated.

The area to the west of the intersection of the road and the River Livo was
more dominated by pine-forests than is usual in this area, with spruce
forests being relatively rare here.

Two Ursus arctos were seen during the survey, as well as several Rangifer
tarandus fennicus and several nesting Cygnus cygnus.

Regarding the old-growth forest indicators, Phellinus populicola,
Perenniporia subacida, Laurilia sulcata and Dichomitus squalens were
recorded. Lobaria pulmonaria was recorded more than ten times.

During an earlier study made by Mariko Lindgren in the northeastern part of
the subarea, a total number of about 40 aphyllophorale species were
recorder during two 6 hour intensive search periods, the following of which
are worthy of mention: Amylocystis lapponica, Amyloporia crassa, Antrodia
albobrunnea, Antrodiella parasitica, Asterodon ferruginosus, Fomitopsis
rosea, Haploporus odorus, Junghuhnia collabens, Junghuhnia luteoalba,
Leptoporus mollis, Oligoporus sericeomollis, Onnia leporina, Phellinus
chrysoloma, Phellinus ferrugineofuscus, Phellinus lundellii, Phellinus
nigrolimitatus, Phellinus pini, Phellinus viticola, Postia placenta,
Skeletocutis kuehneri, Skeletocutis lenis, Skeletocutis odora, Trechispora
mollusca, Trichaptum laricinum, Trichaptum pargamenum. In addition, an
observation of Skeletocutis ÔbrevisporaÕ, a species not yet scientifically
described, was made.

4.4.3. PEATLANDS

Half of the non-forest vegetation areas (covering 23% of the total area)
consisted of pine bogs, the other half of fens, mainly of oligotrophic low-
sedge types, though occasionally of tall-sedge types or other types of poor
pine bogs. Eutrophic vegetation was very rare.

4.4.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   80
Relatively untouched   8
Altered   8
Recent clear-cuttings   4

Along the study lines of one surveyor (Jarmo Pyykkš), signs of old
selective loggings were systematically counted, and were found to occur on
16 % of the sites. This probably reflects the general level of the logging
in the area. The loggings had mostly taken place near the larger rivers,
and on about half of the logged sites, large pines had been removed
systematically, so that most of the previous pine generation was absent,
whereas on the other half only occasional stumps were found, and the
forests had maintained their unevenly-structured character.

The proportion of recent clear-cuttings was estimated from a satellite
image taken in August 1996.

Resin-tappping had not been conducted on the sites along the study lines,
although one tapped stand was noted in the northernmost part of the area.
Along the study lines, there were two small stands with evident
preparations for resin-tapping.

Only two stands in the whole area were apparently previous slash-and-burn
sites. Evidence of hay-collection was present here and there on the sedge
fens and along the riversides.

4.5. SUBAREA II: LAKE LUVA (by Juho
Pennanen)

This area was located to the south-east of Kostamuksha town, between Lake
Luva in the south and the Kostamuksha-Ledmozero road in the north..

4.5.1. GENERAL FEATURES

Topographically the area was relatively plain. 77 % of the sites along the
study lines were closed-canopied forests on mineral soils, spruce swamps or
thin peated pine bogs. Most of the forest sites were relatively poor pine
forests. Small lakes were common. Larger lakes, Luvozero and Vongozero had
nice sandy beaches along their shorelines. Brooks and small rivers were
common, most of which were very slow and brown-watered. There were larger
rivers too, such as Vonkajoki, which also had a stretch of  rapids.

4.5.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   -
Dry sites   10
Dryish sites   60
Moist sites   20
Rich sites   <1
Very rich sites   -
Spruce swamps   10

The distribution of forest structure types is given below.

Pine forests   84
   Evenly-structured   24
   Unevenly-structured   60
   Non-pyrogenous   -

Spruce forests   13
   Mature spruce forests   6
   Old spruce forests   4
   Fire-refugia   3

Broad-leaved forests   -
Mixed even-aged forests   3
The forests were dominated by unevenly-structured pine stands with stately
aihkis. A minimum of  20 aihkis per hectare was taken as the lower limit
for the definition of unevenly-structured forests which gave a proportion
of 60 % of the forested sites. The second most common structural type was
evenly-structured pine forest which covered a quarter of the forest. These
pine forests were mostly 100-160 years old. Spruce was usually present in
the pine forests as a second canopy layer. Only 13 % of the forest was
spruce dominated. Half of this was mature spruce forest with no large
fallen spruce logs present.

One third of the spruce swamps were on rich sites. Fire-refugia type spruce
forests occured practically only in spruce swamps and include just 3 % of
the forests. Only 3 % of the forests had more than 20 % deciduous trees
(proportion of stem number in the dominant layer). There was a considerable
amount of forest which had burnt during this century. Almost all of these
are now unevenly-structured pine forests. Only one stand of young (50-year-
old) evenly-structured forest was found. At the Luvozero there is one
recently burnt site of 20 ha.

E.g. Anser fabalis, Grus grus and Buteo lagopus were seen. Sceletocutis
lenis and Phellinus populicola were observed.

4.5.3. PEATLANDS

Non-forest vegetation (covering 23% of the area) consisted mostly of
oligotrophic fens and pine bogs. Mesotrofic types were also present,
however, and eutrophic fens accounted for 2 % of the non-forested sites
along the study lines (0.5 % of all sites). E.g. Eriophorum latifolium was
a characteristic vascular plant of the rich fens. Rangifer tarandus
fennicus was also noted.

4.5.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   67
Relatively untouched   10
Altered   23

Seventy five percent of the forests along the study lines had no signs of
loggings. However, in 1-2 kilometer wide strips along large watercourses
there had been old selective fellings. In these areas, old living and dead
pine trees were less common. Resin-tapping had been relatively common,
having been conducted in 8 % of the forests along the study lines, mostly
in the central parts of the area. However, the tapped stands were mostly
growing relatively healthily. There were no clear signs of slash and burn
cultivation, but a couple of possible old slash and burn sites. Hay making
has been common especially near Luvozero.

4.6. SUBAREA III: LAKE KIIMAS (by Otto
Miettinen)

This area was located to the east of the Kostamuksa Nature Reserve, north
of the lakes Luva and Kiimas, and also includint the area between the these
two lakes.

4.6.1. GENERAL FEATURES

The area was a flat, small-scale mosaic consisting of forest and mire
patches. Variations in altitude were small (typically 50 meters at most),
but open mires divided the forests at the landscape level into forest
patches. Besides Lakes Luvozero and Kimasozero, smaller lakes could also be
found scattered all over the area, mostly in the mires. In many places
glacial and glaciofluvial formations such as eskers could be found. In the
northern part of the area, beside the road between Kostamuksa and
Letmozero, there were gravel pits.

4.6.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   -
Dry sites   9
Dryish sites   62
Moist sites   19
Rich sites   <1
Very rich sites   -
Spruce swamps   10

The distribution of forest structure types is given below.

Pine forests   88
   Evenly-structured   30
   Unevenly-structured   58
   Non-pyrogenous   -

Spruce forests   8
   Mature and old spruce forests   7
   Fire-refugia   1

Broad-leaved forests   <1
Mixed even-aged forests   3
As can be concluded from the figures above, pine was the dominant tree
species at the landscape level. In most of the pine forests there was,
however, spruce at least as undergrowth. Parts of these forests are already
in a transition state towards spruce forest. Spruce forests covered only 8%
of the area, concentrated on the edges of mires, spruce swamps and
depressions. Refugia-like forests were very rare in this area, and even
many of the spruce swamps were partially growing pine because of some old
fires. Birch was found on dryish sites and moist sites, and forms 2-10 % of
the dominant tree layer. Large aspens were rare in the area, and occured
only as single trees or small groups, and were particularly concentrated in
moist sites. The aspens were generally not over 35 cm in diameter, although
some larger trees could be found in the area. Large willows were commonly
found in the zones between the mires and forests.

A dominant factor in forest dymanics is fire, which has affected the area
several times with varying intensities. Many evenly-structured pine forests
appeared to have been burned in the latter half of the19th century, and
almost all the aihkis in the area had fire scars. However, only in a few
places had more than half of the trees died or been seriously weakened as a
result of fire. Most of the areas affected by fire were small, less than
half a hectare. The largest forest fire area found in a satellite image was
somewhat less than 50 hectares.

Feaces of  Ursus arctos are common in the area. Tetrao urogallus,
Perisoreus infaustus, Corvus corax and Bonasa bonasia were seen all over
the area.

E.g. the following aphylloporales indicating old-growth characteristics
were found during the survey: Antrodia albobrunnea, Phellinus chrysoloma,
Phellinus ferrugineofuscus, Phellinus lundellii, Phellinus pini, Phellinus
viticola, Fomitopsis rosea, Skeletocutis lenis, Rigidoporus corticola and
Hericium coralloides.

4.6.3. PEATLANDS

17% of the area consisted of mires, of which 10% were open or sparsely
forested mires. A herd of six Rangifer tarandus fennicus was seen, as well
as lots of signs of grazing.

4.6.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   63
Relatively untouched   9
Altered   28

Selective cuttings (several dozen stumps/hectare) have occurred in the pine
forests in 15% of the inventory route. Additionally, solitary stumps were
seen in 9% of the forest patches. Although the selective cuttings had been
quite moderate, they have clearly decreased the amount of decaying wood
present in the forest in some places.

Quite intensive resin tapping was found in 10% of the inventory route. The
resin tapping had not yet affected  the structure of the forests. However,
in areas where the tapping has been the most intensive, it is clear that a
proportion of the trees will die in the near future. Most of the tapped
pines had suffered minor damage, such as some branches dying. Collection of
resin had been made using heavy vehicles which had left trails in the
forest for decades.

The most significant factor that had affected the structure of forests in
the area was fire. Nearly all of the forests had been burned more or less
intensly during the last 200 years. As there were relatively many signs of
human impact, it is quite probable that the frequency of forest fires had
increased due to human activities. Actual slash and burn sites were few,
only in 3% of the forests, many of these sites were uncertain.

Disregarding the speculative increment in fire frequency, 63% of the area
was without any visible signs of human influence.

4.7. SUBAREA IV: LAKE MAKSIM (by Otto
Miettinen)

This area was situated to the south-east of Kostamuksha Nature Reserve,
between Lakes Maksim and Luva, on both sides of River Maksim.

4.7.1. GENERAL FEATURES

The survey area was situated 150-270 meters above sea level and  the
highest hill located in the southern part of the area raised about 70
meters above the rest of the landscape. Flat hills with small open or
forested mires around them were very typical for the area. Thus the
landscape was divided into somewhat clear patches. The northern and central
parts of the area contained more mires than for example the south-eastern
corner. Beside Lakes Maksimozero and Luvozero, there were smaller lakes and
ponds throughout the area, mostly surrounded by mires.

4.7.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   -
Dry sites   3
Dryish sites   37
Moist sites   54
Rich sites   <1
Very rich sites   -
Spruce swamps   6

The distribution of forest structure types is given below.

Pine forests   72
   Evenly-structured   26
   Unevenly-structured   46
   Non-pyrogenous   -

Spruce forests   21
   Mature and old spruce forests   10
   Fire-refugia   11

Broad-leaved forests   -
Mixed even-aged forests   7
Pine was the dominant tree species throughout the whole area, especially on
mineral soils. Throughout the area there were small, spruce-growing fire
refugia, mostly on spruce swamps or in connection with other mires in
depressions. Fire-refugias on mineral soils were rare. Post-fire spruce
forests and mixed spruce-pine forests were usually situated in lower,
moister and more fertile places such as pine forests.

In evenly-structured pine forests the trees were usually up to 30 cm, and
in some cases 35 cm in diameter, whereas in older unevenly-structured pine
forests the trees were typically up to 35-45 cm in diameter. Old pine
forests with trees up to 50 - 60 cm in diameter were commonly found
throughout the area. Single pines of up to 90 cm in diameter were found
daily during the expedition, the largest reaching almost 100 cm. The widest
diameters of the spruces in refugia and spruce forests were 35 cm,  and in
more fertile spruce swamps up to 60 cm. Large spruces and birches were
typically found also in pine dominated forests.  Excluding the most barrren
sites, birches of up to 25 cm in diameter were found on all mineral soils. 
Birch typically constituted 2 -15 % of the dominant tree layer. Aspen was
growing both as a pioneer tree in post-fire pine and spruce-pine forests,
and in spruce-dominated fire-refugia on mineral soils and drier mires. In
the latter case, aspen often grew by a brook at a relatively fertile site.
In such  places, aspens of up to 35-50 cm in diameter, and in less fertile
sites typically 20-30 cm in diameter, were seen. In both cases, the aspens
grew either as solitary trees or in small groups, never forming a dominant
tree layer. Large, single willows were found throughout the area, being
more abundant beside mires.

Many aphylloporale that in large quantities indicate old-growth forests,
such as Antrodia primaeva, Skeletocutis lenis, Antrodia albobrunnea,
Phellinus viticola, Phellinus pini, Phellinus chrysoloma and Phellinus
populicola characterized the old-growth forests.

Areas affected by fires were found throughout the area. Those affected by
the most recent fires were mostly small-sized, typically less than one
hectare. One large (50-100 ha) site, which had burnt about five years ago,
was situated in the southeastern part of the survey area. In all of the
other burnt areas - including the largest - the majority or all of the
pines and birches with a diameter of more than 10 cm had survived the fire.
Almost all old pines growing on mineral soils had fire scars and other
signs of fire. Thus it can be stated that  forest fires are a
quintessential element of the forest dynamics in the surveyed area.

Fresh signs of Ursus arctos were seen in the southeastern corner of the
area. Bonasa bonasia was seen all over the area, particularly in the spruce
swamps. Perisoreus infaustus and Corvus corax were also common.

4.7.3. PEATLANDS

Approximately 17% of the area was covered with mires, 10% of which were
open or sparsely stocked mires. Some visual observations of Rangifer
tarandus fennicus were made on the mires.

4.7.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   65
Relatively untouched   12
Altered   23

Signs of selective loggings were noted in 14% of the forest area. The
loggings had mainly taken place in pine forests (especially old, unevenly-
structured pine forests) at least 50 years ago. In 5% of the area the
loggings were classified as intensive, the number of stumps being 20-50
/hectare, however, in most cases logging had not altered the living tree
stand structure significantly.

Certain parts of the surveyed area had been used for intensive resin
tapping. All in all, 15% of the forest area had signs of resin-tapping,
with a typical collection period of 2-5 years. Resin-tapping had taken
place in all types of pine forests, the diameter of the tapped pines was
between 20-60 cm. Tapping had not yet altered the tree stand structure. It
seemed that younger, evenly-structured pine forests had suffered most  - in
these forests some of the tapped trees may die in the near future. Older
pines seemed, however, to be better able to survive the tapping, with only
the loss of  some single branches and the vertical growth ceasing earlier
than in those without tapping.

Slash-and-burn sites accounted for up to 6% of the total area. Clear slash-
and-burn areas, with both girdled pines and slash and burn stumps, were
seen in two places, affecting 1% of the forests. The rest of the slash-and-
burn sites were classified on the basis of the tree stand (now spruce-pine
forest or evenly-structured pine forest) and possible slash and burn
stumps. Most of the old cultivation areas seemed to date back to the end of
the 19th century.

Probably the most significant human influence in the area was the increased
incidence of forest fire. Several human activities, such as bad control of
fires during the burning of forest land for cultivation purposes, may have
caused forest fires. Many of the evenly-structured pine forests seemed to
have resulted from slash and burn cultivation in neighbouring areas.

4.8. SUBAREA V: LAKE KAITA (by Jarmo Pyykkš
and Maiju Pasanen)

This area was located to the south-east of subarea IV, about 10 km to the
south-east of Lake Maxim. The water complex of Lakes Kokko and Murda
bordered the area on the western side, and Lake Kaita was found in the
southeastern corner of the area.

4.8.1. GENERAL FEATURES

The landscape in the area surveyed consisted mainly of watershed-type, old-
growth forest with small-sized but numerous lakes and mires. Topographical
variation was mild except in the northwestern corner, where one finds
several steep-sloped, rocky hill chains originating from the glacial epoch.
The forests were relatively dense, with an overall image of middle boreal
features.

When comparing this inventory area to other subareas in the region, one can
conclude that the area in question had a very low level of human influence,
a large amount of spruce forest, often with refugia-type qualities, and a
relatively small proportion of even-aged pine forests.

4.8.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   -
Dry sites   <1
Dryish sites   53
Moist sites   31
Rich sites   2
Very rich sites   -
Spruce swamps   13

The distribution of forest structure types is given below.

Pine forests   34
   Evenly-structured   20
   Unevenly-structured   14
   Non-pyrogenous   -

Spruce forests   58
   Mature spruce forests   31
   Old spruce forests   19
   Fire-refugia   8

Broad-leaved forests   <1
Mixed even-aged forests   8
The ecological continuity, especially in the form of  the dead wood of
successional decay stages, is very complete throughout the survey area.
Decaying pine wood was also found in the majority of the evenly-structured
pine forests, as well as in the mature spruce forests. Most remarkable,
however, was the massive continuity of dead spruce wood found in the spruce
fire refugia forests. The evenly-structured pine forests were generally of
ages 130 to 200 years old, with an average approximately of 150 years.
Actual broad-leaved forests were few, but decidious trees such as birches,
as well as, to a minor extent, aspens and willows, were a typical feature
of the forest scene.

The origin of quite a large amount of the mature spruce forests is a matter
which requires further inquiry. In this study those forests with no visible
signs of (earlier) human cutting activity were classified as untouched. It
can be estimated that they are most likely the result of relatively
intensive forest fires that occured during the 19th century. The fact that
even these forests mostly contained either old pines in the overstorey or
old, rotting pine trunks on the ground, supports the idea that they have
not been cleared for slash and burn agriculture in the past.

Beaver (Castor sp.) activity was noted at several sites. Cygnus cygnus,
Buteo lagopus and Anser fabalis were seen during the survey. Lobaria
pulmonaria was common throughout the area. Tracks of Rangifer tarandus
fennicus were seen several times in the area, and the tracks of Ursus
arctos once.

4.8.3. PEATLANDS

Open, treeless mires and mires with very open tree canopies covered 16 % of
the area. A quarter of the mires examined were totally treeless. The
distribution of  mires of different trophic levels was as follows:

Oligotrophic   82
Oligo-mesotrophic   10
Mesotrophic   8

No clearly eutrophic mires were found, however, the mires were surveyed in
a very crude manner only.

4.8.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   84
Relatively untouched   8
Altered   8

In addition to the forests which were located far from the main
watercourses in the west, also the forests along the shores had had a very
low level of human impact. This was exceptional even for this region, where
forests in general had very little sign of  human influence. In most of the
other areas, forests along the major water routes and near villages had at
least faced selective loggings of varying intensities, see  Pyykkš, J. et
al. (1996).

Actually the majority of forests classified as altered here, actually had
no definite signs of human activity. They were forests where one finds a
number of old stumps of height of 1 to 1.3 meters with signs of burning.
One can only speculate whether these were the results of human-induced or
natural forest fires. In any case, they did not have any signs of cutting
activities. Other types classified as altered were clear cuts (only one
site) and old slash and burn cultivation sites.

The second category of relatively untouched forests consisted of sites with
clear signs of selective cuttings as well as forests with unaltered
structures but resin-tapping (1 site).

The first category of untouched forests consisted of forests with no
obvious (nor anticipated) signs of human cutting activity. In general they
also showed clear signs of ecological continuity, such as rottening trunks
from earlier tree generations, even in the majority of evenly-structured
pine forests.

It must also be kept in mind that, in the area in question, sites with
clear signs of slash and burn cultivation are very few. In addition, it can
be stated that because of the long distances from any present or historical
villages, the numbers of human-induced fires has generally been lower here
than in many comparable areas which are closer to human settlements.

The future of the forest of this area, however, looks uncertain, as logging
activities are approaching the area from the north, where cutting was
taking place also at the time of this survey. Resin tapping had been
practised ahead of the cutting in a few places at a distance of up to five
kilometers south of the logging sites.

4.9. SUBAREA VI: LAKE SARIJ€RVI (by Juho
Pennanen)

This area was located east of Kostamuksha Nature Reserve on the northern
side of  the Kostamuksha-Ledmozero road.

4.9.1. GENERAL FEATURES

The area was relatively flat, and as much as 39% of the area consists of
peatland. The water bodies of the area consisted mainly of small lakes.

4.9.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   -
Dry sites   1
Dryish sites   26
Moist sites   56
Rich sites   <1
Very rich sites   -
Spruce swamps   16

The distribution of forest structure types is given below.

Pine forests   48
   Evenly-structured   20
   Unevenly-structured   25
   Non-pyrogenous   3

Spruce forests   44
   Mature spruce forests   7
   Old spruce forests   18
   Fire-refugia   19

Broad-leaved forests   <1
Mixed even-aged forests   7
This area is more diverse regarding both forest site types and forest
structure types, than the one found on the southern side of the road
(subarea II). Moist forests on mineral soils dominate, but dryish soils are
quite common too. Some dry forest sites are also present.

The great proportion of spruce dominated fire refugia is a remarkable
feature when compared to other areas in Viena Karelia. In addition to
spruce swamps, fire refugia were commonly found also on moist forest sites.
Even on dryish sites, both spruce and pine dominated fire refugia were
present. This is probably due to the small-scale forest-mire mosaic and the
relatively long distance from watercourses, along which human influence has
been mostly concentrated.

4.9.3. PEATLANDS

About 39% of the area consisted of peatlands. Treeless (or very sparsely
covered) fens accounted for 39% of the peatlands, and the rest consisted of
various types of pine bogs. At least 10% of the peatlands showed
mesotrophy.

4.9.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   87
Relatively untouched   3
Altered   10

There were few signs of loggings and resin tapping in this area. About half
of the loggins had been of very low-intensity, with the only signs of more
systematic selective loggings being found in some places near the
Kostamuksha-Ledmozero road. A number of girdled pines and burnt stumps
indicating slash and burn agriculture were found.

4.10. SUBAREA VII: LAKE NJUK (by Olli-
Pekka Tikkanen)

This area was located on the western side of Lake Njuk, along the
Kostamuksha-Ledmozero road. The first survey route went northwards from the
Kostamuksha-Ledmozero road, passing the Kormus lake from the eastern side
and ended at the western end of Saunalahti. The other route went from the
bridge of the Kiimas river, along the southern shore of  Lake Njuk to the
east, ending at the cape near Torais island and then returned to the
Kostamuksha-Ledmozero road via Lake Mihei.

4.10.1. GENERAL FEATURES

The area surveyed was of quite low-lying, gravel-sand moraine, divided by
two eskers which ran from form east to west. The northernmost esker began
at the western end of Lake Njuk and passed the southern shore of Lake
Kormus, continuing on to the west. The southernmost esker was on the level
of the southern shore of Lake Njuk. Originating from the esker, several
recreationally valuable spits projected into lake Njuk.

The whole landscape was dominated by Lake Njuk, which is 134 m above the
sea level, 36 km in lenght and an average of 6 km in width. The most
important river which flew into Lake Njuk was the free flowing River
Kiimas. There were also a couple of other lakes: Lake Kormus and Lake
Mihei, as well as some smaller lakes and brooks.

The variation in altitude was small, only a few dozen meters, with only one
hill on the eastern side of River Kiimas rises up to 220 meters. Otherwise
the variation in altitude was between 140 and 180 meters. The walking route
on the western side of Lake Njuk in particular was situated in a very low
landscape.

Characteristic to the inventoried area was a mosaic of pine-forest and
small bogs. Wide bog areas were only found in the vicinity of  Lake Kormus.

4.10.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   <1
Dry sites   20
Dryish sites   43
Moist sites   31
Rich sites   <1
Very rich sites   -
Spruce swamps   4

The distribution of forest structure types is given below.

Pine forests   93
   Evenly-structured   52
   Unevenly-structured   41
   Non-pyrogenous   -

Spruce forests   4
Broad-leaved forests   1
Mixed even-aged forests   3
The forests in this area are thus mostly pine forests on dryish sites. The
very clear domination of pine may be explained by frequent occurance of
forest fires. Spruce dominated forests were found only in spruce swamps,
and a single birch dominated forest was found on one swamp-like area.

Signs of forest fires were often seen, especially in the area to the west
of Saunalahti bay and west of Lake Mihei, where there had been huge forest
fires during the last 40 years. The former site has recovered naturally,
but the latter one has been used for resin tapping. The large amount of
even-aged pine forests can be seen as a reflection of the high frequency of
forest fires. The loggings performed at the beginning of the century have
also resulted in evenly-structured stands.     

4.10.3. PEATLANDS

6 % of the area at most consisted of open mires. The proportion might
actually haveen even less, as the route favoured mineral soils. On the
southern side of Lake Njuk there were some dwarf-shrub pine bogs.

4.10.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   34
Relatively untouched   21
Altered   45

Human influence has been significant in the area for a long time.The
effects of the old settlement were seen along the River Kiimas in the form
of young forests and former pastures and fields. The area around Lake Njuk
had been influenced by selective cuttings because access was easy due to
the presence of good water routes. Signs of recent forestry were not found
in the survey area, though some loggings was going on in the surrounding
areas. The northern side of Lake Elimys and the western side of Lake Kormus
were totally clear-cut.

The western and northen sides of Lake Mihei had been used for intensive
resin collection.

Some cottages had been constructed on the western side of Lake Njuk and at
the mouth of the River Kiimas, and on one spot there were three buildings
which had been used as fishing cottages. On the shores there were a lot of
signs of recreational activities.

4.11. SUBAREA VIII: RIVER PISTO (by
Jouni Nissinen and Jan Kunnas)

This area was located about 10 km to the east and north-east of the village
of  Vuonninen, on either side of the water route constituted by the River
Pisto and Lake KorpijŠrvi.

4.11.1. GENERAL FEATURES

The area may be divided into two parts - in the south, along the
watercourses, the proportion of spruce-dominated forest was high, whereas
in the north, the proportion of various types of different pine-dominated
forest was remarkably high. The road from Vuonninen crossed the area in an
east-west direction, and a smaller road led southwards from the main road.

The southern forests of the inventoried area along the lake chain and by
the river banks appeared to have been much used for slash-and-burn
cultivation. This had been taking place on both sides of the water course,
but in general the conservation value of the forests on the western side
was higher than that on the eastern side.

The forests in the northern part of the area are pine forests in a rather
natural condition. They are mostly forests growing in high areas, with more
deciduous trees and a lot of decaying wood in the  depressions.

In the surveyed area, there were small-sized swamps, but larger mires were
rare.

4.11.2. FORESTS

The site types of densely forested patches were distributed as
follows.

Barren sites   1
Dry sites   5
Dryish sites   52
Moist sites   34
Rich sites   3
Very rich sites   -
Spruce swamps   5

The distribution of forest structure types is given below.

Pine forests   70
   Evenly-structured   21
   Unevenly-structured   49
   Non-pyrogenous   <1

Spruce forests   15
   Mature and old spruce forests   14
   Fire-refugia   1

Broad-leaved forests   8
Mixed even-aged forests   6
The dominance of pine forests in the table above is partly technical. Some
of the forests which would in other parts of the report have been
classified as spruce forests are here classified as pine forests if they
include a significant number of aihkis. In addition, some of the pine and
broad-leaved tree forests are in a transformation state towards spruce
forests.

Most parts of the area have been affected by forest fires at different
times, which can be seen from the fire scars on the aihki-pines. The most
recent forest fires had occurred just a few years ago, however, only few
areas had totally burnt.  The total of such areas found during the survey
was only a few hectares. Areas felled by storms were not found.

Decaying wood was found evenly distributed throughout the area, but its
amount varied remarkably. In most places the amount was not very high as
compared to more intact areas. Although most of the area had been utilized
for selective cuttings, aihkis were still found in about 70% of the
forests.

The amount of deciduous trees varied remarkably, with birch making up
typically 10-15% , though in some exceptional cases significantly more.
Other deciduous trees, particularly aspen and willow were found throughout
the area, and in some places they were even abundant. In old slash and burn
sites, birch or aspen accounted for up to 90% of the tree stand.

The densely forested spruce swamps consisted mainly of Equisetum sylvaticum
and Vaccinium myrtillus spruce swamps. The swamps represented the most
untouched parts of the area, and included lots of dead wood and other
characteristics of natural forests. The biggest aspens in the swamps were
of up to 40 cm in diameter, and, e.g. Angelica sylvestris and Rubus
saxatilis  were characteristically found in  the most rich swamps, and
Ranunculus lapponicus was found in a few places. Also many of the
brooksides consisted of rich types of spruce swamp.

Some rich forest sites were also present, including an exceptionally
valuable, untouched spruce dominated  valley, which was was found somewhat
to the west of the northwestern corner of Lake KorpijŠrvi. Decaying wood in
all stages of decay was abundant in the valley. On the western side of the
water system there were some springs surrounded by small-scale, rich forest
sites. On the southern part of the surveyed area some birch dominated, old
slash and burn sites on rich forest sites were found, as well as some old
meadows and signs of old pasturage.  Paris quadrifolia, Rubus saxatilis,
Geranium sylvaticum, Angelica sylvestris and Maianthemum bifolium were
characteristic at these.

Beaver (Castor sp.) activity was noted on one brook in the south-eastern
corner of the area. Spruce and aspen of up to 50 cm were found along the
brook, as well as a lot of decaying spruce and birch in all stages of
decay.

E.g. Fomitopsis rosea, Phlebia centrifuga, Skeletocutis lenis and Phellinus
pini were found in the old-growth forest patches in this area

4.11.3. PEATLANDS

Peatlands (excluding spruce swamps) make up only about 5% of the area.
About half of these patches consist of ombro-oligtrophic pine bogs and the
other half of  ombro-mesotrophic fens. Most of these occur as small-sized
patches.

4.11.4. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Evidence of human influence was distributed as follows.

Untouched   15
Relatively untouched   40
Altered   45

Thus throughout most of the area, a certain amount of human influence was
evident, but its intensity varied strongly. The minimum level of human
influence was represented by occasional stumps, and the maximum influence
by large-scale resin tapping in addition to selective loggings. Some cabins
were found on the shores of the lakes, and directly outside the inventory
area, there is also a couple of small-sized clear-cut areas.

In some 70% of the forest area, more or less clear signs of selective
loggings could be recognized. Resin tapping  had taken place in some 15% of
the forest, and the influence of slash and burn cultivation was noted in
11% of the forest. When comparing these figures to the table above, it
should be noted that the different types of human influence may affect
overlapping areas.

4.12. SUBAREA IX: M…LKK… PENINSULA (by
Otto Miettinen)

This area is located to the east of the road between Pongaguba and
Voknavolok, where it projects into the waters of Lake Upper Kuitti. This
part of the report is based on a short visit to this area, a previous
report by Jarmo Pyykkš and consultation with Riitta NykŠnen. The study
lines made in the area were too short to reliably determine the proportions
of different forest patches, so these figures are not given for this
subarea.

4.12.1. GENERAL FEATURES

There have been three villages in the area, Pongaguba, Mšlkkš and
Pirttiguba, with a total of some 500 inhabitants prior to the Second World
War. Currently there are no permanent residents in any of these villages
but some people practised farming there during the summer months. In
addition,  Pirttiguba-village is culturally one of the most  important
sites in the Viena Karelia area, being visited by a large number of
tourists every year. Both Pongaguba and Pirttiguba have been selected as
sites for the UNESCO revitalising programme for Viena Karelia folklore
villages.

4.12.2. FORESTS

The area was dominated by old (160-200 years), pine-dominated forests on
dryish sites. Typical but less common were moist spruce forests and spruce
swamps which generally had a lower forest fire frequency than that of pine
forests.

Sizable willows and aspens were found scattered throughout Mšlkkš, and
there were some forest patches containing large amounts of aspen (e.g. in
quartal 62). Lobaria pulmonaria was common in the area.

The very old pine forests which included lots of large aihkis, some of
which were well over 50 cm in diameter, which could be found for example in
quartal 62,  are worthy of mention, as well as the flood meadows and
different kinds of peatlands associated with these, which were found e.g.
along the border of quartals 36, 62 and 64.

There were many signs of Rangifer tarandus fennicus in the area. Higher
pine forests growing lichens in the under storey were common, for example
in the border of quartals 63 and 64. These are especially valuable for
Rangifer tarandus fennicus and showed signs of grazing.

4.12.3. HUMAN INFLUENCE

The availability of large pines, and in many cases the rather short
distance to nearby villages and to a large water system, have contributed
to a long history of selective cuttings in some parts of the area.  A rough
estimate would be that at least one third of the forest had no signs of
human influence. Areas with human influence could be divided into two
categories: those with very intensive resin tapping or clear selective
logging, and those with only a short history of resin tapping or with only
a few stumps. Both types were common. The forest structure had been
retained in most cases, and even in the managed patches, was unevenly-
structured, and resembled intact natural forests in similar conditions. On
a whole, natural forest dynamics seemed to be still functioning well in the
area.

Most of the selective cuttings had taken place near the villages, on the
shores and along the tracks between Pongaguba and Mšlkkš, as well as
beteween Pirttiguba and Voknavolok. More recent selective cuttings were
found in most areas along the tracks and along the road between Voknavolok
and Pongaguba. In addition, the central parts of the cape had faced
intensive, and in some cases quite destructive, resin tapping.

5. VUOKSA (by Keijo Savola and Marjatta Sihvonen)

As noted in Chapter 2, Chapters 5 (Vuoksa) and 6 (VorobÕevo) should be
considered as an independent part of this report. This is due to the
different character of the environment in the Leningrad region as compared
to that in the Karelian Republic, which is also reflected in the
methodology applied there.

5.1. INTRODUCTION

The preliminary forest and mire inventory was carried out in the area of
Lake Vuoksa, to the west of the town of Priozersk, by the Finnish-Russian
field group consisting of:

Aulikki Lipponen, undergraduate student, University of Helsinki,
Katja Matveinen, MSc, University of Helsinki,
Keijo Savola, undergraduate student, University of Helsinki,
Marjatta Sihvonen, MSc, University of Helsinki,
Denis Goppyjef, undergraduate student, University of
Petrozavodsk.

The fieldwork was carried out between the 27th and 30th of June, 1997. In
addition to forests and mires, the survey also included parts of the
archipelago in Lake Vuoksa. Special attention was paid to the forest
structure, forest types, mire types, vascular plants, and polypore fungi
flora, and the bird and mollusc fauna of the region. The amount and the
quality of dead trees in the area was also evaluated.

The inventory area was situated between the island of Snegir in the east,
the island of Medvezij in the south, the bay 1.5 km to the west of the
island of Medvezij in the west and a large raised bog in the north, 3 km to
the north of Lake Vuoksa. This area covers a total of approximately 2 200
hectares of land and 400 hectares of lake area.

In the west, this inventory area is connected to a planned plant
conservation area, namely the Lake Vuoksa lime (Tilia cordata) forest.

The above mentioned characteristics of the area were surveyed as thoroughly
as possible considering the short time available. This report describes the
results of the preliminary inventory. It gives a rough overview of part of
a larger, potentially very valuable forest, mire and archipelago complex on
the Karelian Isthmus and provides grounds for undertaking more thorough
studies of this area.

The forest types used in this report are the Cajander forest site type
classes [Cajander 1926]. The mire types are described according to Oulanka
Reports 14 [Eurola et al. 1995].

The writers of this report wish to thank Mariko Lindgren and Janne
Kumpulainen for their help and comments on the manuscript.

5.2. GENERAL FEATURES

The inventory area is situated on the Fennoscandian bedrock, close to its
south-eastern edge. The soil in the area is mainly gravel and sand-moraine,
with some sites of clay- and silt-moraine.

Open, rocky outcrops, small islands with diverse vegetation, forest types
varying from herb-rich forests, mixed and spruce dominated forests to small
pine forest patches, as well as different forested and open mire types,
occur in the area. In a word,  the environment here is rich and varied.

5.2.1. FORESTS

The forests were characterized by species-rich vegetation and fertile
forest types. The 60-80 years old Vaccinium-Myrtillus type and Oxalis
acetosella-Vaccinium-Myrtillus type forests were particularly common in
this area. Different types of diverse herb-rich forests were also abundant.
The herb-rich forests were found particularly rich in uncommon vascular
plant species.

The various meso-eutrophic forested mires and swamps, in completely natural
state, are typical of this area. The abundance of black alder swamps
particularly adds to the diversity of the habitats in here.

The forests have remained without significant human impact for a relatively
long period of time. Consequently they are, when compared to the general
forest structure on the Karelian Isthmus, relatively untouched forests with
features of natural forest dymamics. Although the forests are relatively
young, they have accumulated a considerable amount of dead trees and
decaying wood. The oldest forest patches e.g. the forest to the west of
Uglovoj-bay and those adjacent to the large raised bog in the northern part
of the area, can well be considered as old-growth forests.   

5.2.2. MEADOWS

In addition to archipelago, forests and mires, the area also contains old
meadows, most of which were last cultivated over 50 years ago. They
increase the ecological diversity of the area by offering habitats to
species which depend on an environment formed by traditional agriculture.
Most of these meadows, however, are likely to be afforested by young
broadleaf stands.

5.2.3. RECREATIONAL USE

The archipelago and the shores of Lake Vuoksa are also valuable as leisure
areas for the inhabitants of the Karelian Isthmus and St.Petersburg. In the
summertime the beaches are popular camping, fishing and hiking sites.

The inventory area may be divided into different biotopes as follows:

¥   Forests   55
¥   Mires (including spruce mires)   15
¥   Waters   25
¥   Old meadows   5

5.2.4. UNCOMMON  AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

Many uncommon vascular and sporiferous plants were found in the area (see
chapter 5.11.) several of which were classified as endangered in Leningrad
Oblast (The Red Data Book of Eastern Fennoscandia, preliminary version,
1997).

5.3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE
FORESTS

Some 35-40% of the area was covered by Vaccinium-Myrtillus type, mixed and
spruce dominated forests. More fertile, Oxalis acetosella type forests were
particularly abundant due to the fertile moraine soil types, and they
covered some 35-40% of the area. In addition, Vaccinium vitis-idaea type,
pine dominated forests constituted some 15-25%, occurring mainly in the
northern parts of the area, in the south-west part of Uglovoj-bay and on a
few of the islands.

5.3.1. HERB-RICH FORESTS

Mesic, herb-rich forests covered some 5-10% of the area, most of which
belonged to the Oxalis acetosella-Maianthemum bifolium type and also the
more fertile, more species rich, Hepatica nobilis-Oxalis acetosella type. A
few Rubus saxatilis-Oxalis acetosella type and Pulmonaria obscura-Oxalis
acetosella type forests were also found. These herb-rich forests were
characterized by Oxalis acetosella, Hepatica nobilis, Rubus saxatilis,
Convallaria majalis, Paris quadrifolia, Geranium sylvaticum and
Gymnocarpium dryopteris. In the most fertile sites Actaea spicata,
Aegopodium podagraria, Daphne mezereum, Epilobium montanum, Lathyrus
vernus, Millium effusum, Pulmonaria obscura, Dryopteris filixmas, Prunus
padus and Tilia cordata also occurred.

In the vicinity of old meadows and farms, the mesic herb-rich forests were
somewhat affected by traditional agriculture. They were thus characterized
by Anthriscus sylvestris, Aegopodium podagraria and Urtica dioica.

A special feature of the western part of the area was the dry, herb-rich
forest types. The Vaccinium vitis-idaea-Rubus saxatilis type was
characterized by Melica nutans, Rubus saxatilis, Pteridium aquilinum,
Convallaria majalis and Fragaria vesca. The more fertile, Melica nutans-
Lathyrus vernus type was characterized by Hepatica nobilis, Convallaria
majalis, Fragaria vesca, Millium effusum, Vicia sylvatica, Geranium
sylvaticum and Lathyrus vernus. Platanthera bifolia was also found.

5.3.2. HUMAN INFLUENCE

Slash-and-burn agriculture has had a major influence on the landscape and
vegetation of this area. The present forest structure has developed from
stands growing on former slash-and-burn sites. Due to the lack of forest
management in recent decades, the forests have clearly exceeded the age of
commercial forest's regeneration maturity. Some sanitary cuttings have
taken place, but only in the south-western part of Uglovoj-bay, in the
managed area, which is of less than 10 hectares.

Five decades without human disturbance in the forest dynamics had resulted
in natural or natural-like forests and forested mires. In the oldest forest
sites, the amount of decaying wood was considerable, and neither sapling
stands nr clearcuts were not found in the area.

5.3.3. AGE  OF THE DIFFERENT STANDS

The majority of the forests were 60-80 years old. Older, 80-90 year old
stands occurred to the west of Uglovoj-bay and in the northern parts of the
area, around the large raised bog.

Forest stands, which were younger than 60 years occurred to the south-west
of Uglovoj-bay, on some islands and in small sites adjacent to the northern
shore of the lake. Parts of the old meadows were covered with 40 year old,
broadleaf stands.

5.3.4. FOREST STRUCTURE AND TREE SPECIES

There has not been any commercial thinnings in the forests of this area.
This results in dense tree stands and in a rich composition of different
tree species. Also the age of the trees is varied, even though the dominant
stand is usually relatively even-aged.

Aihkis were found neither in the living nor in the dead stand. Nor were
there any stumps which might imply selective loggings during this century.
Therefore it is highly probable that the forests have developed on slash-
and-burn sites, but grown since then under natural conditions, without
significant human impact.

The majority of the Vaccinium myrtillus and Oxalis acetosella-Vaccinium
myrtillus type forests to the north of Lake Vuoksa, and in particular the
oldest forests of the area, were clearly spruce dominated. However, the
proportion of birch (Betula pubescens, B.pendula) in spruce dominated
forests was 10-15%, which is remarkably high and suggests natural forest
dynamics. The proportion of aspen was some 5% of the stand, and in certain
of the Oxalis acetosella-Vaccinium myrtillus type forest sites, some 5-10%
of the stand.

The forests situated along the lakeshores, some nutrient-rich forested
mires and herb-rich forests were mostly birch dominated, with aspen
constituting some 10% of these forests. Also the majority of the islands of
Lake Vuoksa are birch dominated, with mixed birch-aspen and alder (Alnus
incana)-birch forests developing on old meadows and fields.

Large limes were often found on the islands and also in the herb-rich
forests on the mainland. Black alder (Alnus glutinosa) was the dominant
species in the nutrient rich swamps, and it grew to a particularly large
size.

Pine dominated forests occurred by the northern shores of Lake Vuoksa and
on small sites around the area. In the western parts of the area, an
unusual pine dominated forest type, namely the dry variant of the herb-rich
forest, was found (Vaccinium vitis-idaea-Rubus saxatilis and Melica nutans-
Lathyrus vernus types).

These herb-rich sites are heterogenous, pine dominated stands with spruce
undergrowth. The dominant pine stand was 60-70 years old, and the height of
the spruce canopy was 70-80% that of the pine canopy.

5.3.5. DECAYING WOOD

In this evaluation of the amount of decaying wood, only trunks larger than
10 cm in diameter were recorded.

Despite the relatively young age of the forests, they had accumulated a
considerable amount of dead trees and decaying wood. Most of the decaying
wood in the area consisted of spruce and birch, which was still relatively
hard and thin in diameter. However, at certain sites there were also old,
relatively large (up to 55 cm in diameter) and more decayed fallen spruces.

The amount of fallen trunks in the area varied typically from 50 to 150 per
hectare and standing dead trees from 20 to 50 per hectare.

The amount of decaying wood was lowest in the forests to the southwest of
Uglovoj-bay and in the forests situated beside the lakeshores. In the
latter, campers have probably used the dead trunks for campfires.

The amount and diversity of decaying wood was highest in the oldest forests
of the area, to the west-northwest of Uglovoj-bay and in the forests
situated around the raised bog to the north. In these Vaccinium myrtillus
and Oxalis acetosella-Vaccinium myrtillus type forests, the amount of
fallen trunks was 250-350 per hectare on average. The amount of standing
dead trees at the same sites was 100-150 per hectare.

In the old-growth forest to the west-northwest of Uglovoj-bay, the amount
of fallen trunks rose to as much as 500-600 per hectare. The decaying trees
there included mainly spruce, birch and aspen, of 5-30 cm in diameter.

In the pine dominated sites, the decaying wood consisted of thin or
relatively large pine trunks and individual birch trunks.

In the nutrient-rich, broadleaf dominated, forested mires and in the herb-
rich forests a remarkable amount of the decaying wood was birch, of 5-20 cm
in diameter. Decaying aspen occurred mainly as individual trunks throughout
the whole area.

It can be concluded that the whole continuum of decaying wood had not
remained unbroken. The pine continuum had been lost due to the destruction
of aihkis during the period of slash-and-burn agriculture. Spruce, birch
and in certain sites also the aspen continuum had, however, remained
relatively well.

5.4. MIRES

The largest mire, of 200 hectares, was the raised bog situated at the
northern part of the area. The dominant mire types in the raised bog were
sparsely forested, ordinary low-sedge pine fen,

Eriophorum vaginatum pine bog and tall-sedge pine fen.

The raised bog was surrounded by different types of forested mires. This
formed a transition zone between the raised bog and the forest. The water
balance of the raised bog, and also that of the surrounding forested mire
zone, was completely unaltered. No drainage had been carried out in the
area. Therefore, the large raised bog along with its transition zones was
in a natural state. The forested mire zone consisted of Equisetum
sylvaticum spruce mire, thin peated Myrtillus spruce mire and thin peated
herb spruce mire.

At the southern end of the raised bog there was a meso-eutrophic zone, 200
meters long and 80 meters wide. The mire-types there were mesotrophic tall-
sedge pine fen and mesotrophic tall-sedge birch fen. Dachtylorhiza
incarnata, Eriophorum latiofolium, Trichophorum alpinum and Utricularia
minor occurred there.

The paludified zones in the forestland were of diffrent types of
mesotrophic and eutrophic spruce mire and black alder mires. Characteristic
mire-types were Myrtillus spruce mires, thin-peated Myrtillus spruce mires
and Equisetum sylvaticum spruce mire. Thin peated herb spruce mires and
herb myrtillus spruce mires were also relatively common. The nutrient-
richness (mesotrophic, certain sites also meso-eutrophic) of these mires
was demonstrated by the presence of Oxalis acetosella, Geranium sylvaticum,
Rubus saxatilis, Pyrola rotundifolia and Dryopteris carthusiana.

Herb-myrtillus spruce mire type, spring vegetation occurred in an area of
one hectare beside the old-growth forest to the west of Uglovoj-bay.

Small, herb-grass spruce mires and even thin-peated eutrophic spruce mires
and fern spruce mires occurred in this area. In these most nutrient-rich,
forested mire types Athyrium filix-femina, Dryopteris expansa, Filipendula
ulmaria, Crepis paludosa, Cirsium helenoides, Paris quadrifolia,
Thelypteris phegopteris occurred and in certain sites also Matteuccia
struthiopteris.

Several mesotrophic black alder swamps and birch swamps were also found in
this area.

5.5. THE NATURE CONSERVATIONAL VALUE

The results of the preliminary inventory have shown that the Lake Vuoksa
area is a valuable entity. The value of the area is increased by following
factors:

¥   The lakeshores are free from construction,
¥   The unique archipelago landscape and nature,
¥   Diverse herb-rich forests,
¥   The area has remained for a relatively long time without
significant human impact; it has been excluded from forest
management during the last five decades and is thus
unfragmented,
¥   The area harbours old-growth forests with large amounts of
decaying wood, which act as important refuges for many old-
growth forest species,
¥   Species richness of flora and fauna which are dependent upon
fertile forest types, and forest mire types,
¥   The presence of several endangered species.

The location, next to the established conservation area of the Lake Vuoksa
linden forest and the diversity of forest and forested mire types make the
habitat variation so rich that the value of this area can not be
overestimated. It is also highly probable that the old-growth forests of
this area represent one of the most valuable old-growth sites on the
Karelian Isthmus.

In addition to the value of the old-growth forests, the value of younger
stands should also be considered. The Broadleaved and mixed stands with
high amounts of decaying birch were abundant in the area. These are very
important potential habitats for Dendrocopos leucotos, a bird species which
is threatened in Europe. D. leucotos has been recorded in nearby areas and,
according to WWF Finland, its population on the Karelian Isthmus is
strongly concentrated in the Priozersk archipelago. In June 1996 three
birds were recorded at the same time, only 1 km to the southwest of
Medvezij Island.

Furthermore, the old meadows of the area are important as valuable habitat
for the Corncrake (Crex crex), a globally threatened bird.

5.6. THREATS AND FURTHER INVENTORIES

The nature of the area is threatened by possible logging and construction
on the lakeshores.

The inventory area of 2 200 hectares is probably part of a much larger
forest and mire complex. Therefore the inventories should be expanded to
encompass the surrounding areas as soon as possible.

We recommend that an area around Lake Vuoksa of altogether 20 000 hectares
(including the lake) should be throughly surveyed (see the attached map).
During such an inventory, special attention should be payed to the
archipelago and shore environments as well as the forests situated on the
north and west sides of the lake. We also recommend that the old-growth
forests and herb-rich forests mentioned in this report should be surveyed
more throughly.

5.7. SIGNIFICANT SPECIES FOUND IN THE
AREA

The category of endangerment in Leningrad Oblast according to the
preliminary Red Data Book of Eastern Fennoscandia is given in parentheses.

Vascular plants
¥   Actaea spicata (4). Over 15 specimens in the herb-rich
forests.Notably abundant in the western parts of the area.
¥   Daphne mezereum (4). Over 20 specimens in the herb-rich
forests. Also abundant in the western parts.
¥   Viburnum opulus. Several specimens in the herb-rich forests
and thin-peated, eutrophic, spruce  mires in the western parts
of the area.
¥   Lonicera xylosteum. Several specimens in the herb-rich forests
and thin-peated, eutrophic, spruce  mires in the western parts
of the area.
¥   Dactylorhiza incarnata (4). Several specimens in the meso-
eutrophic zone of the raised bog, in the northern parts of the
area.
¥   Epipactis helleborine. One specimen on the herb-rich forest
slope, 0.5 kilometers to the northwest of Medvezij Island.
Favours calcium-rich soil, rare in the bedrock area (Hulten,
1950).
¥   Eriophorum latiofolium (4). Several specimens in the meso-
eutrophic zone of the raised bog. An important new record for
the Karelian Isthmus.
¥   Geranium robertianum (3). 7 specimens, most of the which were
situated on rocks in the herb-rich forests of the western parts
and also on the island of Medvezij.
¥   Impatiens noli-tangere. In certain sites in the wet, herb-rich
forests, and also on the island of Medvezij.
¥   Circaea alpina. One specimen in the thin-peated, eutrophic,
spruce mire to the north of the raised bog. Rare in the bedrock
area (Hulten, 1950).
¥   Lathyrus vernus (4). This species was common in the herb-rich
forests of the area.
¥   Listera ovata (4). Several specimens in the wet, herb-rich
forest to the north of island of Medvezij.
¥   Platanthera bifolia (3). 7 specimens in the herb-rich forests
of the area.
¥   Pulmonaria obscura. Abundant in certain herb-rich forest
sites.

Mosses
¥   Neckera pennata. 3 specimens on large aspens in the old-growth
forest to the west of Uglovoj-bay.

Birds
¥   Accipiter gentilis. Nest in the western part of the area.
¥   Crex crex (4). Calling male in an old meadow beside the
Uglovoj-bay
¥   Larus fuscus (4). Nesting pairs on the small islands in the
western parts of the area.
¥   Porzana porzana. A singing male on the shore on the western
side of Uglovoj-bay.

Molluscs
¥   Acanthinula aculeata. One specimen on a Vaccinium myrtillus-
Oxalis acetosella site to the south of the raised bog, one in
the herb-rich forest on Medvezij Island. A species which
requires herb-rich forest.

Mammals
¥   Pteromys volans (4). One specimen in the western part of the
inventory area (observed by Mariko Lindgren, University of
Helsinki, in June 1996).

Fungi
The species which indicate valuable, southern boreal zone, old-growth
forests (Kotiranta & NiemelŠ, 1996), are marked with an asterisk (*).

¥   Antrodia pulvinascens *. 1 observation in the western part of
the area. An indicator of a remarkably good aspen continuum.
¥   Fomitopsis rosea *. 2 observations in the old-growth forests
to the west of Uglovoj-bay and 1 observation to the south of
large raised bog.
¥   Phellinus ferrugineofuscus *. Several observations in the old-
growth forests to the west of Uglovoj-bay and to the south of
large raised bog.
¥   Phellinus nigrolimitatus *. Several observations in the old-
growth forests to the west of Uglovoj-bay.
¥   Phellinus populicola *. 15 observations on aspens. An
indicator of a remarkably good aspen continuum.
¥   Phellinus viticola *. Several observations in the oldest
conifer forests of the area.
¥   Pycnoporellus fulgens *. 11 observations in the old-growth
forests to the west of Uglovoj-bay and to the south of the large
raised bog.
¥   Clavicorona pyxidata *. 1 observations to the north of the
island of Medvezij.

6. VOROBÕEVO (by Keijo Savola and Marjatta
Sihvonen)

6.1. INTRODUCTION

A preliminary forest and mire inventory was carried out in the VorobÕevo
area by a Finnish field group consisting of:

Aulikki Lipponen, undergraduate student, University of Helsinki,
Katja Matveinen, MSc, University of Helsinki,
Keijo Savola, undergraduate student, University of Helsinki,
Marjatta Sihvonen, MSc, University of Helsinki.

The fieldwork was carried out between  3rd - 5th of July, 1997 and special
attention was paid to the forest structure, forest types, mire types,
vascular plant flora, and the bird and mollusc fauna. Species of polypore
fungi indicating valuable old-growth forests of the southern boreal zone
[Kotiranta & NiemelŠ, 1996] and the amount and the quality of dead trees in
the area were also recorded.

The inventory area covered 3 200 hectares, 200 hectares of which consisted
of waters.This report describes the area situated between the village of
Motornoe in the north, the road on the southern side of Lake VorobÕevo in
the south, the Priozersk-Vladimirovka road in the east and a large raised
bog on the western side of Lake VorobÕevo in the west. In addition, the
shore line forests of Lake Ladoga are also described.

The inventory area is situated outside the southern edge of the
Fennoscandian bedrock. The lack of bedrock can be clearly seen in the
geomorphological features of the area. The inventory area was divided into
two distinct parts, which are hereafter referred to in the text as the
western and the eastern areas.

6.1.1. THE WESTERN AREA

The western area is an esker landscape from the glacial era. The ridge-like
eskers with large sand and gravel plateaus and Lake VorobÕevo itself form a
valuable geomorphological entity. Esker vegetation, distinct dry habitats
and endangered species occur in the area. For example the only known
occurrence of Oxytropis campestris on the Karelian Isthmus was found  in
the VorobÕevo area [HultŽn 1950].

The conservational value of the area is much enhanced by the forests of the
sand pit area to the southwest of the lake. These forests are nearly intact
and more than 120 years old.

The large raised bog to the western side of the lake is also included in
the western area.

6.1.2. THE EASTERN AREA

The soil in the eastern part of the inventory area was mainly silt moraine.
Therefore it differed from the western part both in landscape and in
vegetation. Characteristic to the eastern part were partly paludified
forests and forested mires. In the eastern part there were also fields and
meadows which had reverted to forest, each to a different degree.

6.2. GENERAL FEATURES

The whole inventory area can be divided into the following
habitats:
¥   Forests   71
¥   Mires (incl. forested mires)   18
¥   Waters   8
¥   Fields and meadows reverted to forest   3
¥   Other (roads)  

The forest types were very varied. In the western area Calluna and
Vaccinium vitis-idaea types predominated. In certain sites, these types
were replaced by their esker vegetation variants. The stands consisted
mainly of 50-70 year old pines.  In the eastern area more fertile types,
mainly Vaccinium myrtillus and Oxalis acetosella-Vaccinium myrtillus types
occurred. They were mixed forests with a remarkably large amount of birch
(Betula sp.).

The amount of decaying wood in general was very low, however, in certain
sites, which contained 30-40 year old pine stands which had been left
without thinning, the amount of decaying, hard wood was relatively high.

The mires throughout the whole inventory area consisted of oligo-
mesotrophic pine bogs and relatively nutrient-rich forested mires. Lake
VorobÕevo and several smaller lakes enriched the esker landscape.

6.3. HUMAN INFLUENCE

The forests in both the western and the eastern areas showed signs of
significant human impact of long duration. Thinnings and small-scale
clearcuts had been carried out recently. Forests with features of natural
forest dynamics were, however found in the sand pits and in certain sites
in the eastern area.

In addition to the commercial forest management, there were old fields in
the area, and human influence could also be seen in the vicinity of a small
road, which runs through the inventory area. There was also a camping site
by Lake VorobÕevo.

6.4. THE NATURE CONSERVATIONAL VALUE 

The inventory area has clear conservational value and is also of value as
an area for recreational use. The eskers in the VorobÕevo area have
considerable conservational value on account of their geomorphological
formation and also as a conservation area for esker vegetation.

The forests with the highest conservational value were the old-growth
forests of the sand pits. The sand pit area, which covered 100 hectares in
the southwestern side of VorobÕevo, was covered with almost totally
untouched, old-growth forests. Valuable forests also occurred in the
eastern part of the inventory area, where certain sites had developed a
considerable amount of decaying wood. The numerous small, natural lakes and
also Lake VorobÕevo, which is a popular camping site, have value as
recreational areas for the people of the Karelian Isthmus and St.
Petersburg.

6.5. FURTHER PROCEDURE AND
INVENTORIES

The structure and intactness of the sand pit forests make them unique on
the Karelian Isthmus, and even in the wider area around Lake Ladoga, where
managed forests predominate. Therefore even selective logging should not be
permitted in the sand pits or in their vicinity, so as to preserve these
untouched sites.

The inventory should be expanded to the south of the area which was
surveyed here, to include Lake Otradnoe and the shore stands of Lake
Ladoga; the whole area of which is also included in the Oblast conservation
plan.

More detailed data on species such as polypores and beetles could be easily
obtained and should also be collected. Furthermore, a detailed
geomorphological analysis should be done regarding the unique esker
formation.

6.6. DESCRIPTION OF THE WESTERN AREA

The western area is characterized by the esker formation and the large pine
forests on the sand and gravel plateau. The dominant features of the
landscape are the several small lakes, especially the very beautiful and
clear watered Lake VorobÕevo and the smaller lake situated to the northwest
of it. The diversity of the habitats of the area is enriched by the large
raised bog to the west of the lake.

The area may be divided into habitats as follows:
¥   Forests   77
¥   Lakes and ponds   14
¥   Mires   9

6.6.1. FOREST VEGETATION

The majority of the forests in the western area were Calluna type forests.
Parts of the esker forests belonged to the esker variant of this type,
namely Hypochloeris-Calluna type, which is distinguished from Calluna type
mainly by its species richness. In addition to Hypochloeris maculata,
Convallaria majalis, Fragaria vesca, and Dactylorhiza maculata occur on the
eskers, and, on certain sites, also Rubus saxatilis and Pteridium
aquilinum. These esker slopes can be classified as dry, herb-rich forests,
the most nutrient-rich sites even as Vaccinium vitis-idaea - Rubus
saxatilis types.

Calluna type forests, together with their esker variants, included about
70% of the forests of the western area. Along the lake shores, and
particularly on the northeastern side of Lake VorobÕevo, Vaccinium vitis-
idaea type forests were also found. The exact forest type was difficult to
define in certain sites to the east of the lake. These mixed birch-pine
forests were characterized by Pteridium aquilinum and Convallaria majalis
in the ground cover, with Rubus saxatilis also occurring. The structure of
these forests was probably a consequence of cattle grazing at the beginning
of this century. Vaccinium myrtillus type forests occurred on the steep,
northeastern slopes of the eastern part of the area and on the hilly sites
and sand pits to the east of the lake. Some Vaccinium myrtillus type sites
occurred also in the northwestern part of the area. Oxalis acetosella-
Vaccinium myrtillus type occurred only on the steep slopes in the eastern
part of the area and in some of the sand pits.

The percentages of different forest types in the western area
were:
¥   Calluna and Hypochoeris calluna type   70
¥   Vaccinium vitis-idaea type + its esker variant type   15-20
¥   Vaccinium myrtillus type   10-15
¥   Oxalis acetosella-Vaccinium myrtillus type   -3
¥   Herb-rich forests   0.3
The majority of the forests in the western area were 50-75 years old. The
oldest forests of the area were the old-growth forests in the sand pit
areas to the southwest of the lake. These forests were not less than 120
years old.

The majority of the Calluna type forests in the esker area contained pine
stands with a homogenous structure. They were even-aged, 60-70 years on
average.

Also characteristic to the area were young pine stands, which had grown on
former clearcut areas and developed in a natural manner. They occurred
mainly to the north of the lake. The density of trees in these stands was
high compared to commercial forests and the individual pines were very thin
in diameter. In the most fertile sites in the eskers there were mixed pine
forests, where birch accounted for some 25 % of the stand.

The heterogenous pine stands accounted for some 5-10% of the forests in the
area. Most of these were situated on the eskers to the west of the lake.
Pines aged over 200 years and possessing firescars were found within an
area of a few hectares also to the west of the lake.

The structure in the Vaccinium vitis-idaea type forests was relatively
homogenous. These were pine forests with a varied proportion of birch and
with a growing, lower spruce layer. There were also sites of mixed pine
forests where birch accounted for 10-25%. These stands occurred mainly on
the eastern and western shores of the lake.

Heterogenous spruce forests and mixed spruce forests comprised the
Vaccinium myrtillus and Oxalis acetosella-Vaccinium myrtillus type forests.

The primary pine and spruce forests in the sand pits and in their
surroundings represented the most intact forests and were also of the
highest conservational value in the area. The largests pits were 50 to 100
meters wide, and the forests structure varied between the slopes and
bottoms from primary spruce forest to primary pine forests.

The majority of the stands on the slopes consisted of 120 years old
spruces, and in the bottoms of the pits the spruce stands predominated.
These could be classified as primary spruce forests, which had surveyed
without forest fires for a long duration. Therefore the amount of large,
decaying spruce in them was abundant. 250 year old pines and standing dead
pines as well as large, 50 cm in diameter aspens also occurred in the
bottom of the sand pits.

Aihkis, 200-300 years of age and with fire scars, occurred in the steep,
dry slopes of the pits. There were aihkis also on the dry pine heaths
between the pits. The middle and the upper slopes of the sand pits grew
large pines with lower, growing, heterogenous pine and mixed pine-spruce
stands.

The forests between the pits were pine dominated Vaccinium vitis-idaea and
Calluna types. The bottoms and most of the slopes of the pits were
Vaccinium myrtillus type spruce forests. All of these sites were distincly
untouched with no signs of human interference. Several aihkis occurred and
the amount of large, decaying pine and spruce trees was abundant in all
degrees of decay.

An example of the variation of Vaccinium myrtillus and Oxalis acetosella-
Vaccinium myrtillus type forests was given by a slope of the esker in the
eastern side of the area, the slope of which faced northeast.

Within 2.5 kilometers the vegetation changed from nutrient poor Vaccinium
myrtillus type on top of the ridge to a more fertile type, and  to Oxalis
asetosella-Vaccinium myrtillus type at the foot of the slope. The forests
structure of the slope varied from forests with a growing, lower spruce
layer to mixed spruce forest at the foot of the slope. Pine accounted for
5-25% spruce 60-80%, birch 5-15% and aspen 3-15% of the stand on the slope.

At the foot of the slope, on the most fertile sites, lindens (Tilia
cordata) also occurred. On the top of the ridge there were several very
large aihkis. These pines were 250-400 years old, they had several fire
scars and they reached a size of 60-70 cm in diameter. These pines were
probably left standing in the selective loggings because of their position
on a very steep slope.

Relatively fertile Vaccinium myrtillus and Oxalis acetosella-Vaccinium
myrtillus type forests occurred also in the long depressions to the east of
the lake. They were covered with mixed spruce forests where aspen often
accounted for 20% of the stand.

6.6.2. HUMAN INFLUENCE

The forests of the western area were mainly commercial forests. The
structure of the forests showed signs of intensive human impact of long
duration. A part of the forests had clearly grown on former slash-and-burn
sites.

The intensity of management however, varied greatly within the area.
Certain sites had developed for a relatively long time in a natural manner.
The human impact is best seen in the pine dominated forests, which were
characterized by even aged stands, a small amount or monotonous content of
decaying wood and a small amount of aihkis.

There had been several clearcuts in the area during recent years. Sapling
stands also occur around the whole area. The fellings had nevertheless been
small in scale and covered only 5-10% of the forest area. Young stands, 30-
50 years old occurred mainly in the northern parts of the area. They
accounted for some 10% of the forests.

The forests around the lake had probably been subject to landscape
planning. The esker pine forests which surround the lake are characterized
by pine stands of homogenous structure. The trees were relatively large and
70-80 years of age. These pine stands form a beautiful landscape, but they
are also favoured by campers and hikers for firewood.

6.6.3. DECAYING WOOD

In this evaluation of decaying wood, only trunks of larger than 10 cm in
diameter were recorded.

In the majority of the forests in the western area, the amount of both
standing and fallen decaying wood was low. An exception to this was the
forests in the eastern and northern sides of the area, and especially the
sand pit forests.

Some features of natural forest dynamics could already be seen in the
development of decaying wood in the 30-50 years old stands, which had grown
without commercial thinning. These forests were characterized by thin
standing and fallen trunks. The amount of fallen pines, 5-15 cm in
diameter, was 250-500 trunks per hectare and that of standing dead pines
was 50-150 per hectare. These kind of forests occurred in the north and at
certain sites in the eastern part of the area. In the next decades the
amount of decaying wood will increase considerably in the area of 10
hectares to the west of the lake. There about half of the pine stand was
suffering from a fungal infection.

The amount of decaying spruce was relatively high to the east of the lake.
There the 70-80 years old spruce forests had grown on former slash-and-burn
sites, but have remained without human influence during recent decades. The
composition of decaying wood was estimated to be as follows:

Fallen trunks: total amount 250-500 trunks per hectare

¥   Picea abies   150-400
¥   Pinus sylvestris   0-100
¥   Betula spp.   50-100
¥   Populus tremula    20-50

Standing dead trees: total amount 100-200 per hectare

¥   Picea abies   30-150
¥   Pinus sylvestris   10-30
¥   Betula spp.   20-50
¥   Populus tremula    5-20

Due to the age and history of the forests, the decaying wood consisted
mainly of relatively hard trunks, 5-20 cm in diameter. Larger fallen
spruce, pine and aspen trunks, 25 cm in diameter occurred sparsely and most
of these had also fallen in recent years. Older, rotten spruce and birch
trunks covered with moss occurred in the depressions. Most of the standing
dead trees had died in recent years.

It can be concluded that there was some continuum of decaying wood for
spruce, birch and aspen, though it was weak. The continuum of pine is
broken due to the removal of the aihkis.

In the next decades however, in the sites which have been left without
management, the amount of dead wood will increase and the composition of
decaying wood will also become more diverse due to the present structure of
the forest, provided that the ongoing development without intensive human
impact will be allowed to continue. This will also favourably effect the
species richness in the area.

In the sand pit forests, a very important continuum of decaying wood is
present. This continuum is essential for a number of demanding species of
fungi, lichens, moss and beetles. The pine continuum in particular makes
the site unique, as other such sites are not known on the Karelian Isthmus.

The largest standing dead pines were 30-45 cm in diameter and the fallen
pine trunks even 40-60 cm. There were about 50 standing dead trees per
hectare in the sand pit area. The amount of fallen pine trunks reached 30-
40 per hectare. The occurrence and the relatively high amount of older,
rotten pine trunks was the most significant feature of these sites. In the
spruce dominated sites the amount of decaying trunks varies, the total
amount being 350-450 in the best sites. The composition of decaying wood
includes spruce, birch and aspen. Also significant is the occurrence of
these species in all degrees of decay. The largest fallen spruces were 50
cm in diameter.

6.6.4. MIRES

All the mires in the area had remained untouched with no signs of drainage
or other commercial management. The mire habitat consisted mainly of the
raised bog in the west side of the area and paludified shores by several
small lakes. In addition, thin-peated  Myrtillus spruce mires occurred in
the bottoms of the sand-pits and in the northwest side of the area.

A preliminary inventory was made of the northern and eastern sides of the
200 hectare raised bog. This raised bog formed a beautiful mire landscape.
It was characterized by sparsely forested mire types; Eriophorum vaginatum
pine bog, ordinary dwarf-shrub pine bog, oligotrophic tall-sedge pine fen
and oligotrophic low-sedge pine fen.

The lake shores belonged to the low-sedge pine fen category. In the
northern parts of the area two small lakes merged with a narrow river. The
river shores were characterized by oligotrophic tall-sedge pine fen and
sedge herb swamp vegetation.

6.6.5. WATERS

The most significant waters were Lake VorobÕevo and a smaller (about 80
hectares) lake situated northwest of it. These lakes were clear,
oligotrophic waters, and were surrounded by 60-80 years old pine heaths.
Lake VorobÕevo with its sandy beaches and the topography of the surrounding
area, forms a very beautiful landscape. The lake is a popular camping site.

The smaller lake is used less as a leisure area. Its peaceful, wilderness-
like landscape offered a suitable nesting habitat for two pairs of Larus
fuscus. The ponds were oligotrophic, with humus-rich waters. Their shores
were not built up and despite of being popular leisure areas, they form
wilderness-like landscapes.

The only running water within the area was a narrow river combining two
ponds in the north. It was completely untouched and ran in the paludified
depression between the heaths.

6.6.6. SIGNIFICANT SPECIES FOUND IN THE
WESTERN AREA

The category of endangerment in Leningrad Oblast according to the
preliminary Red Data Book of Eastern Fennoscandia in parentheses.

Birds
¥   Larus fuscus (4). 2 nesting pairs at a lake to the northeast
of VorobÕevo.
¥   Caprimulgus europaeus.Several individuals in the pine heaths
to the northeast of the lake.

Vascular plants
¥   Platanthera bifolia (4). Several specimens in the sand pit
slopes.
¥   Pulsatilla vernalis. Several specimens in the eskers to the
south of the lake.
¥   Tilia cordata. Several trees at the foot of the esker on the
eastern side of the area.

Fungi
¥   Phellinus populicola. 2 specimens on the esker on the eastern
side. This species is an important indicator of the aspen
continuum.
¥   Phellinus pini. Several specimens in the sand pits. This
species is an important indicator of the pine continuum.

Lichens
¥   Lobaria pulmonata. 2 specimens on the esker on the eastern
side, on aspens in the sand pits.

6.7. DESCRIPTION OF THE EASTERN AREA

The eastern part of the inventory area was situated between the Priozersk-
Vladimirovka road and the eskers described above. The area covers 1 400
hectares. The soil is mainly silt moraine, which shows as distinct features
in the landscape.

The area may be divided into different habitats as follows:
¥   Forests   60
¥   Mires (including forested mires)   30
¥   Old meadows and fields   10

6.7.1. FOREST VEGETATION

Paludification was characteristic of the forests in the eastern area. They
were also more fertile than those in the western area. The majority of the
forests belonged to the Vaccinium myrtillus type and Oxalis acetosella-
Vaccinium myrtillus type. Some herb-rich sites also occurred, with Paris
quadrifolia, Stellaria nemorosum and Geum rivale in their ground cover.

In the southern parts the Vaccinium vitis-idaea type predominated over the
few Calluna type sites. Some sites in the pine heaths in the northern parts
of the area remained unclear in the type classification. They were clearly
more fertile than the rest of the Vaccinium vitis-idaea type forests, with,
for example, Geranium sylvaticum in the ground cover which suggests the dry
herb-rich forest types.

The heaths may be divided into different forest types as
follows:
¥   Calluna type   4
¥   Vaccinium vitis-idaea type   15-20
¥   Vaccinium myrtillus type   55-65
¥   Oxalis acetosella-Vaccinium myrtillus type   20-25
¥   Herb-rich forests   5
The forests were 60-80 years old on the average. Small areas of clearcuts
or sapling stands occurred in the southern parts. Parts of the old meadows
and fields are afforested and grow 30-40 year old, dense broadleaf stands.

The forests of the eastern area were mainly mixed, spruce or birch
dominated. The amount of aspen varied, being some 2-5% of the total stand.
In certain Oxalis-acetosella sites the amount of aspen was 10%. There was
only 5-10% of pine on average, but in the southern and northern heaths it
was the dominant tree species.

The large amount of birch in certain sites was remarkable. One distinctive
site, consisting almost solely of birch, had grown on a slope nearby the
road in the western side of the area.

The structure of the forest was very varied due to the different degrees of
human influence. The 60-80 years old mixed spruce forests were relatively
abundant, and these were too dense in terms of commercial use. In addition
to the dominant spruce they grew birch and aspen. These forests had
probably grown on former slash-and- burn sites. There were no aihkis,
however, the amount of decaying wood was relatively high due to the lack of
commercial forest management, such as thinning. These forests and forested
mires that have conservational value due to their natural character,
accounted for 30% of the area. Sanitary cuttings had affected the forest
structure around the whole area.

6.7.2. HUMAN INFLUENCE

The forests of the eastern area showed a history of intense human impact,
having grown on former slash-and-burn sites. A part of the young mixed
birch-aspen forests were former fields and meadows, last cultivated in the
1930Õs.

The intensity of commercial forest management within the area had varied
during recent decades. A large part of the older, 60-80 year old, mixed
spruce forests and forested mires had developed without thinning. These
sites showed features of natural forest dynamics, such as a remarkable
amount of decaying wood.

In the southern parts small-scale clearcuts had been carried out recently,
therefore sapling stands occurred and some sanitary cuttings had been
carried out, but these were also on a small-scale.

The forested mires and paludified heaths in the middle of the area had been
affected by drainage. Ditches occurred however, only within a small area.

6.7.3. DECAYING WOOD

In this evaluation of  decaying wood, only trunks larger than 10 cm in
diameter were recorded.

The majority of the forests had only a small amount of decaying wood. It
was most abundant in the middle of the area, in the Vaccinium myrtillus and
Oxalis acetosella-Vaccinium myrtillus type forests and forested mires. The
total amount and species variation of decaying wood was estimated to be as
follows:

The amount of all, fallen decaying trunks was 200-500 per
hectare:
¥   Picea abies   100-350
¥   Pinus sylvestris   10-15
¥   Betula spp.    80-150
¥   Popula tremula    30-60

The amount of all standing dead trees was 70-150 per hectare:
¥   Picea abies    30-100
¥   Pinus sylvestris   0-20
¥   Betula spp.    30-80
¥   Populus tremula    20-30

Due to the age and history of the forests, the decaying wood consisted
mainly of hard birch and spruce trunks 5-20 cm in diameter. If larger
trunks occurred, they had fallen quite recently. In the afforested meadows
and fields the amount of decaying wood was still very small, though some
decaying birch occurred.

The forests of the eastern area contained only a moderate continuum of
decaying spruce, birch and aspen. The continuum of pine did not exist
anymore, due to the absense of aihkis. Providing that the forests continue
to grow without human influence the amount of decaying wood will inrease
notably in the next decades. This is due to the present structure and
relative fertility if the forests.

6.7.4. MIRES

One third of the area was covered with mires. The forested mires were
concentrated in the central and northern parts of the area. In the southern
parts there were three larger, separate mirecomplexes of 20, 60 and 110
hectares.

Typical forested mire types are meso-eutrophic, spruce mires and spruce-
birch mires. Equisetum sylvaticum spruce mires, thin-peated Myrtillus
spruce mires, thin-peated herb spruce mires, herb-Myrtillus spruce mires,
fern spruce mires and herb grass mires occur in the area. There were also
nutrient-rich, black alder swamps with stands of remarkably large black
alder, and birch swamps in the area.

In the middle of the area there were also spring fens with herb and grass
vegetation. The nutrient-richness of the forested mires was indicated by
Athyrium filix-femina, Oxalis acetosella, Geum rivale, Dryopteris
carthusiana, Dryopteris expansa, Stellaria nemoreum, Valeriana
sambucifolia, Platanthera bifolia, Paris quadrifolia, Stellaria uliginosa
and Impatiens noli-tangere. The forested mires in the northern part
contained also mixed stands, namely spruce-pine mires.

The largest mire (110 hectares) in the southern part was composed of oligo-
mesotrophic pine bogs and spruce mires. The predominant types were spruce-
pine mires, Eriophorum vaginatum pine bogs, Myrtillus spruce mires, Rubus
chamaemorus spruce mires and Equisetum sylvaticum spruce mires. The most
diverse mire environment was the large black alder swamp on the northern
side of this mire complex. The two smaller mires were composed mainly of
Eriophorum vaginatum pine bogs, dwarf-shrub pine bogs and spruce pine mires
with relatively dense pine and spruce pine stands.

6.7.5. SIGNIFICANT SPECIES FOUND IN THE
EASTERN AREA

The category of endangerment in Leningrad Oblast according to the
preliminary Red Data Book of Eastern Fennoscandia is given in parentheses.

Vascular plants
¥   Platanthera bifolia (3). Several specimens in the thin-peated
eutrophic spruce mires and in the Oxalis acetosella forests.
¥   Valeriana sambucifolia (4). Several specimens in the
afforested field and in the  thin peated eutrophic spruce mire.
¥   Impatiens noli-tangere. Several specimens in the herb-grass
mire.

Mosses
¥   Neckera pennata. One specimen in the southern part, in a herb-
myrtillus mire.

Fungi
¥   Phellinus populicola. One specimen in the southern part of the
area.

6.8. FORESTS ALONG THE SHORES OF LAKE
LADOGA

A preliminary inventory was made in the forests between Lake Ladoga and the
Priozersk-Vladimirovka road, on the 5th of July. Remarkable conservational
values were found during a short time. For instance the area contained a
400 meters wide site of 80 year old Oxalis acetosella-Vaccinium myrtillus
type forest. This forest had grown on a former slash-and-burn site but
developed completely under natural forest dynamics.

The amount of decaying wood was remarkably high. The total amount of fallen
trunks was 400-600 per hectare, and that of dead standing trees 100 per
hectare. There was also a large amount of decaying large spruce and birch,
which makes it a valuable and significant site of relatively untouched old-
growth forest. The intact character of the forest was indicated by two
polypore fungi found at the site, namely Pycnoporellus fulgens and
Phellinus ferrugineofuscus. Actaea spicata, classified as an endangered
vascular plant in Leningrad oblast also occurred in the area.

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In addition to the people participating in the actual inventories, the help
of the following people was irreplaceable:

Many thanks to Riitta NykŠnen for her contribution concerning the
introduction to the Viena Karelia area, as well as her most hospitable
accommodation at Voknavolok, Stephen Venn, Kaisa Raitio and Markus
Bjšrksten for checking the language of the report, Virpi Sahi for helping
to compile the report from its constituent parts, Melchert Meijer zu
Schlochtern for visualizing the annexed maps, Juha Kinnunen for providing a
comprehensive list of literature, Kalervo Ojutkangas for transportation
along the rough roads, and Seppo Jyrkinen for lending us the legendary red
vehicle for the whole summer.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The list given below is aimed to be more comprehensive than just a list of 
references. However, as an important part of the literature regarding the
natural history of north-west Russia is published in Russian only and is
not always easily accessible in western countries, significant gaps may
occur.

Aario, L. 1941: Pisin pogosta. - Terra 53 (4):218-230.

Aarnio, B. 1944: ErŠitŠ piirteitŠ Aunuksen piirin maaperŠstŠ. - Maataloust.
Aikakauslehti 16(1).

Ahlner, S. 1941: Einige Flechtenfunde aus Karelien. - Svensk Botanisk
Tidskrift 35 (3).

Ahti, T. & HŠmet-Ahti, L. 1971: Hemerophilous flora of the Kuusamo
district, northeast Finland, and the adjacent part of Karelia, and its
origin. - Ann. Bot. Fenn. 8:1-91.

Ahti, T., HŠmet-Ahti, L. & Jalas, J. 1964: Luoteis-Euroopan
kasvillisuusvyšhykkeistŠ ja kasvillisuusalueista. - Luonnon Tutkija 68:1-
28.

Airaksinen, K. 1920: Kuusimetsien esiintymisestŠ KuolajŠrvellŠ. - Acta
Forestalia Fennica 14 (5):73-75.

Andrianova, O.V., Malenkov, V.L., Malenkova, A.Yu. & Pozdnjakov, S.V. 1990:
Terrestrial vertebrates of the Kostomuksha reserve. - Terrestrial
vertebrates in the reserves of north European RSFSR: 10-28. (in Russian)

Asejev, A.A. & Makkavejev, A.N. 1981: Reconstruction of the last
deglaciation. - Glacial deposits and glacial history in eastern
Fennoscandia, Academy of Sciences of the USSR: 118-127. Apatity. (in
Russian)

Auer, V. 1942: Anteil der finnischen Forscher an der Erforschung von Kola,
Ostkarelien und Ingermanland. - Fennia 67 (3):1-136.

Auer, V. 1923: Suotutkimuksia Kuusamon ja KuolajŠrven vaara-alueilta. -
Comm. Inst. Quaest. Forest. Finl. 6 (1):1-368.

Belousova, N.A., Sazonov, S.V., Kuchko, A.A. & Kravchenko, A.V. 1992:
Condition and the prospects in the development of the system of protected
nature territories in Karelia. - Protected nature territories and nature
monuments in Karelia: 6-17. Petrozavodsk. (in Russian)

Belousova, N.A., Sazonov, S.V., Kuchko, A.A. & Kravchenko, A.V. 1992: State
and developmental prospects of the system of protected territories of
Karelia. - Protected nature territories and nature monuments in Karelia:
17-31. Petrozavodsk. (In Russian).

Berghell, H. 1916: Geologisk šversiktskarta šver Finland, sektioner E 2 och
E 3, Salmi och SuojŠrvi. - Beskrivning till jordartskartan. Geologiska
Komissionen i Finland. 171 s. Helsinki.

Bianki, V.V., Kohanov, V.D., Korjakin, A.S., Krasnov, Ju.V., Paneva, T.D.,
Tatarinkova, I.P., Chemiakin, R.G., Shkljarevich, F.N. & Shutova, E.V.
1993: The birds of Kola-White Sea region. - Russian ornithological magazine
2 (4):491-586. (in Russian)

Biske, G.S. 1959: Chetvertchnye otlozheniya i geomorfologiya Karelii. -
Gosudarstvennoe izdatelstvo KASSR. Petrozavodsk. 307 s. (in Russian)

Biske, G.S. 1959: Moreny Karelii. - Trudy Karelskogo filiala Akademii Nauk
SSSR: 83-99.

Borg, V. 1903: Bericht Ÿber die geographischen Resultate einer
Forschungsreise in der Gegenden von Finnisch- und Russisch-Lappland im
Sommer 1901. - Fennia 20 (5):1-59.

Brandt, A. 1933: HiisjŠrven luonnonpuiston kasvillisuudesta. - Silva
Fennica 32:1-108.

Brotherus, V.F. & Saelan, T. 1890: Musci Lapponiae Kola‘nsis. - Acta Soc.
F. Fl. Fenn. 6:1-100.

Cajander, A. 1900: Fenno-Scandian kasvitieteellisestŠ kaakkoisrajasta. -
Medd. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 26.

Cajander, A. & Lindroth, J.I. 1900: Matkakertomus kasvitieteellisestŠ
retkestŠ Aunuksen Karjalaan (Ol.) kesŠnŠ 1898. - Medd. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn.
25:1-6.

Cajander, A.K. 1926: The theory of forest types. - Acta Forest.Fennica
29(3):1-108

Dudoreva, T.A. & Ahti, T. 1996: Species rarae macrolichenum prov.
Murmanensis. - Novitates Systematicae Plantarum Non Vascularium 31.

Ekman, I.M. 1982: Marginal formations and the degradation of the last
glaciation in Karelia. - Esitys XI INQUA Kongressissa, Moskova.

Ekman, I.M. & Iljin, V. 1991: Deglaciation, the Younger Dryas end moraines
and their correlation in the Karelian ASSR and adjacent areas. - Geological
Survey of Finland, Guide 32:73-99.

Ekman, I.M., Iljin, V. & Lukashov, A. 1981: Degradation of the late ice
sheet on the territory of the Karelian ASSR. - Glacial deposits and glacial
history in eastern Fennoscandia, Academy of Sciences of the USSR: 103-117.
Apatity. (in Russian)

Elfving, F. 1878: Anteckningar om vegetationen kring floden Svir. - Medd.
Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 4:115-170.

Elina, G.A. & Kuznetsov, O.L. 1977: Tipy bolot, ihk ispolzovanie i okhrana.
-  Biologicheskie resursy rajona Kostomukshi, puti osvoenija i okhrani: 5-
23. Petrozavodsk. (in Russian)

Elina, G.A., & Volkov, A. 1993 : Rastitelnyj mir Karelii i problemyi jevo
okhrani. - Rossijskaja Akademija Nauk, krelskij Nautsnyj tsentr, Institut
biologii, Institut lesa. Petrozavodsk. 198 s. (in Russian)

Elina, G.A., Kuznetsov, O.L. & Maksimov, A.I. 1984: Strukturno-
funkcionalnaja organizacija I dinamika bolotnyh ekosistem Karelii. - Nauka.
Leningrad. 128 s.

Elina, G.A., Kuznetsov, O.L., Devjatova, E.I., Maksimov, A.I. & Stoikina,
N.V. 1994: The present-day and Holocene vegetation of the PaanajŠrvi
National Park (northwestern Karelia). - Bot. Journal N4 vol. 79:13-31. (in
Russian)

Erkamo, V. 1942: Suomalaisten kasvitieteilijšiden matkareiteistŠ ItŠ-
Karjalassa. - Luonnon YstŠvŠ 46 (4):134-136.

Eskola, P. 1925: On the Petrology of Eastern Fennoscandia I. The Mineral
Development of the Basic Rocks in the Karelian Formations. - Fennia 45.

Eskola, P. 1942: ItŠ-Karjalan kallioperŠstŠ. - Terra 53:171-193.

Eurola, S. Huttunen, A. & Kukko-oja, K. 1995: Oulanka Reports 14. - Oulanka
biological station.University of Oulu.

Evzerov, V. & Koschechkin, B. 1977: Late-Quaternary history of the White
Sea. - Terra 89 (4):211-213.

Evzerov, V. & Koschechkin, B. 1981: Glaciation flow stages in the western
part of the Kola Peninsula. -  Glacial deposits and glacial history in
eastern Fennoscandia; Academy of Sciences of the USSR: 38-47. Apatity. (in
Russian)

Fagerstršm, L. 1940: Ett bidrag till kŠnnedomen om vegetation och flora i
Terijoki socken pŒ Karelska nŠset. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 15:94-140.

Fagerstršm, L. 1940: Cetraria nivalis (L.) Ach. funnen i Terijoki. - Mem.
Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 15.

Fagerstršm, L. 1941: Anteckningar om floran och vegetationen i Terijoki
socken. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 17:121-142.

Fagerstršm, L. 1945: En fšrteckning šver lavar, insamlade i FjŠrr-Karelen
sensommaren 1942. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 20:142-145.

Fagerstršm, L. 1945: VŠxtgeografiska anteckningar frŒn en fŠrd i FjŠrr
Karelen sensommaren 1942. - Medd. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 4:115-170, Mem. Soc. F.
Fl. Fenn. 20:107-142.

Fagerstršm, L. 1946: En botanisk resa till Schungu-halvšn i Karelia
onegensis sommaren 1943. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 22:84-105.

Fagerstršm, L. & Luther, H. 1945: Ett bidrag till kŠnnedom om floran i
VieljŠrviomrŒdet i Karelia olonetsensis. - Medd. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 21:18-
45.

Frosterus, B. 1901: Kertomus karttalehteen no. 35. Antrea. Suomen
Geologinen tutkimus. 45 ss.

Frosterus, B. 1925: †ber die kambrischen Sedimente der Karelischen
Landenge. - Fennia 45 (17):1-52.

Galkina, E.A. 1936: Tipy bolot Tungudskogo raiona Awtonomnoi Karelskoi SSR.
- Geobotanika 3:307-343.

Galkina, E.A. 1959: Bolotnye landshafty Karelii i printsipy ih
klassifikatsii. -  Nitsenko, A.A. & Lepin, L.Ja. : Torfjanye bolota
Karelii: 3-48. Petrozavodsk. (in Russian)

Grigorjev, S.V. & Gritsevskaja, G.A. 1959: Katolog ozer Karelii. -
Leningrad. (in Russian)

Gromtsev, A.N. 1993: Landshaftnye zakonomernosti struktury i dinamiki
srednetaeshnyh sosnovyh lesov Karelii. - Karelskij nautsnyj tsentr
Rossijskoj Akademii Nauk. Petrozavodsk. 160 s. (in Russian)

Gromtsev, A.N. (Ed) 1997: Inventory of natural complexes and ecological
feasibility study of Kalevala National Park. Forest Research Institute,
Karelian Research Centre, Russian Academy of Sciences.

Grosswald, M.G. 1972: Glacier variations and crustal movements in northern
European Russia in late Pleistocene and Holocene times. -  Vasari, Y.,
HyvŠrinen, H. & Hicks, S. : Climatic changes in arctic areas during the
last ten-thousand years. Acta Universitatis Ouluensis A: Geologica 1:205-
223.

Grosswald, M.G. 1980: Late Weichselian ice sheet of northern Eurasia. -
Quaternary Research 13:1-32.

GŸnther, A.K. 1867: Materialy dlja poznanija flory Olonezkoj guberij.
Pmjatnaja knishka Olonezkoj guberij na 1867 god. - Izdanie olonezkago
gubernskago statistitseskago komiteta. Petrozavodsk.

GŸnther, A.K. 1880: Materialy k flor Olonetskago kraja.

Hackman, V. & Wilkman, W.W. 1925: Beskrivning till bergartskartan D6-
KuolajŠrvi. - Geologiska komissionen i Finland. 154 s.

Hakulinen, R. 1962: Die Flechtengattung Umbilicaria in Ostfennoskandien und
angrenzenden Teilen Norwegens. - Ann. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Vanamo 32:1-87.

Hakulinen, R. 1965: †ber die Verbreitung und das Vorkommen einiger
nšrdlichen Erd- und Steinflechten in Ostfennoskandien. - Aquilo Ser. Bot.
3:22-66.

Hakulinen, R. 1966: †ber einige nšrdliche Flechtenarten im sŸdšstlichen
Fennoskandien. - Ann. Bot. Fennici 3:180-198.

Halonen,  P. 1993: The lichen flora of the PaanajŠrvi National Park. -
Oulanka Reports.

Halonen, P & Puolasmaa, A. 1995: The lichen genus Usnea in eastern
Fennoscandia. I. Usnea hirta. - Ann. Bot. Fennici 32:127-135.

Von Helmersen, G. 1882: Geologische und physico-geographische Beobachtungen
im Olonezer Bergrevier. - BeitrŠge zur Kenntnis des russischen Reiches und
der angrenzender LŠnder Asiens, Band V.

Herlin, N. 1944: Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Flora in der Provinz Karelia
keretina in Ostkarelien. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 19:91-103.

Hiitonen, I. 1962: †ber die natŸrliche SŸdostgrenze des šstlichen
Fennoskandien unter besonderer BerŸcksichtigung der Karelischen Landenge. -
Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 37:13-69.

Hiitonen, I. 1970: ItŠisen Fennoskandian luonnollinen raja Karjalan
kannaksella. - Terra 82:129-140.

Hjelt, H. 1881: Anteckningar frŒn en botanisk resa I Karelen sommaren 1876.
- Medd. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 6:1-69.

Hulten, E. 1950: Atlas of the distribution of the vascular plants in
northwest Europe. - Stockholm, 512 pp.

Hustich, I. 1943: Eine pflanzengeographische †bersicht Ÿber das Gebiet
Kuuttilahti am SywŠri-Swir (Fern-Karelien). - Acta Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 63
(3):1-53.

Hustich, I. 1945: Pflanzengeographische †bersicht Ÿber das KuujŠrvi-Gebiet
am mittleren Swir in Fern-Karelien. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 20:46-77.

Hustich, I. 1945: ErgŠnzungen zur Flora des Gebietes Kuuttilahti im Swir
(Fern-Karelien). - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 20:104-107.

Hustich, I. 1945: †ber die Nordgrenze des Ahorns (Acer platanoides L.) in
Fern-Karelien. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 20:95-104.

Huttunen, A. & Y. Vasari 1993: Kasviretki Nuoruselle ja TavajŠrvelle
itŠiseen Kuusamoon. - Aquilo Ser. Bot. 33.

HyvŠrinen, H. 1973: The deglaciation history of eastern Fennoscandia. -
Boreas 2:85-102.

HyvŠrinen, H. 1975: MyšhŠisjŠŠkauden Fennoskandia - kŠsityksiŠ ennen ja
nyt. - Terra 87:155-166.

HyyppŠ, E. 1932: Untersuchungen Ÿber die spŠtquartŠre Geschichte der WŠlder
am Karelischen Isthmus nebst einigen Vergleichen mit angeliegenden
Gebieten. - Comm. Inst. Forest. Fenn. 18 (3).

HyyppŠ, E. 1932: Die postglazialen Niveauverschiebungen auf der Karelischen
Landenge. - Fennia 56:1-241.

HyyppŠ, E. 1933: Das Klima und die WŠlder der spŠtglazialen Zeit im Bereich
der Karelischen Landenge. - Acta Forestalia Fennica 39 (4).

HyyppŠ, E. 1937: Artesischer Grundwasserausbruch in Terijoki und einige
Geschichtspunkte Ÿber die Struktur des Karelischen Isthmus. - Bull. Comm.
gŽologique Finland N:o 119.

HyyppŠ, E. 1937: Post-glacial changes of shore-line in South-Finland. -
Bull. Comm. gŽologique Finland 120:1-225.

HŠllstršm, K.H. 1910: Laatokan Karjalan ÒharvinaisistaÓ kasveista. -
Karjala. Karjalaisen osakunnan julkaisu: 77. Helsinki.

Ivanter, E.V. & Kuznetsov, O.L.  1995: Krasnaja kniga Karelii. -
Petrozavodsk. 286 s. (in Russian)

Jakovlev, F.S. & Voronova, V.S. 1959: Tipy lesov Karelii i ih prirodnoe
rajonirovanie. - Petrozavodsk. 190 s.

Jakovlev 1988: Plodonoshenie gribov i sezonnaja aktivnost dvukrylyh
nasekomyh v sosnovyh i osinovyh molodnjakah. - Karelskij filial AN SSSR.
Petrozavodsk. 68 s.

Jalas, J. 1947: PiirteitŠ Aunuksen lakeuden niittykasvillisuudesta. - Mem.
Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 23:111-120.

Jalas, J. 1961: Regionale ZŸge in der Felsenvegetation und -flora
Ostfennoskandiens. - Arch. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 16 (suppl):38-49.

Jaroshenko, A., 1997: The suggestion of the Russian Forest Club for the
Kalevala National Park (in Russian) - a report of Russian Forest Club.

Jaroshenko, A. et al, 1997: Protection of valuable forest areas and state
of forestry in Kostamus area in Karelian Republic - a report of Russian
Forest Club.

Kalela, A. 1942: Finlands vŠxtgeografiska šstgrŠns. - Nordisk Tidskrift, ny
serie 18:353-374.

Kalela, A. 1943: Die Ostgrenze Fennoskandiens in pflanzengeographischer
Beziehung. - Veršff. Geobot. Inst. RŸbel in ZŸrich 20:1-68.

Kalela, A. 1943: Suomen luonnontieteellinen itŠraja. - Suomalainen Suomi
N:o 8-9/1942 ja N:o 1/1943.

Kalela, A. 1943: ErŠiden itŠisten Rumex-lajien esiintymisestŠ ItŠ-
Karjalassa. - Luonnon YstŠvŠ 47(4).

Kalela, A. 1944: EtelŠ-Aunuksen viljavuusalueet. - MetsŠtaloudellinen
Aikakauslehti 5/1944.

Kalela, A. 1949: Die Fruchtbarkeitsgebiete von SŸd-Olonets (Ostkarelien). -
Arch. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 2:148-153.

Kallio, P. 1944: ErŠitŠ kasvilšytšjŠ Vienasta. - Luonnon YstŠvŠ 48:134.

Kalliola, R. 1943: PorajŠrven seudun metsŠtyypeistŠ. - Comm. Inst. Forest.
Fenn. 31 (2).

Kalliola, R. & Soveri, J. 1942: €Šnisen Karjalalle (€K) uusia kasvilajeja.
- Luonnon YstŠvŠ 46.

Kashevarov, B. 1997: Kostamuksen luonnonsuojelualue. - Luonnonsuojelu
itŠisessŠ Suomessa ja Karjalan tasavallassa. Ekologinen tiedote nro 2: 42-
47.

Kihlman (Kairamo), A.O. 1890: Pflanzenbiologische Studien aus Russisch-
Lappland. - Acta Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 6.

Kolomytsev, V.A. 1993: Bolotoobrazovatelnyj protsess v srednetaeshnyh
landshaftah Vostotsnoj Fennoskandii. - Karelskij nautsnyj tsentr Rossijskoj
Akademii Nauk. Petrozavodsk. 172 s. (in Russian)

Konstantinova, N.A. 1992: Protection of bryophytes in the Murmansk region
(Russia). - Biological Conservation 59:191-195.

Konstantinova, N.A., Likhachev, A.I. & Belkina, O.A. 1993: Dopolnenija i
utotsnenija k ÒKonspektu flory Murmanskoj oblastiÓ. -  Konstantinova, N.A.:
Floristitseskie i geobotanitseskie issledovanija v Murmanskoj oblasti: 6-
44. (in Russian)

Kotilainen, M. 1922: Havaintoja dyynikasvillisuudesta erŠŠllŠ Laatokan
hiekkarannalla. - Luonnon YstŠvŠ 26:105-112.

Kotilainen, M. 1929: †ber das boreale Laubmooselement in Ladoga-Karelien. -
Ann. Soc. Vanamo 11:1-142.

Kotilainen, M. 1931: Exkursion nach Ladoga-Karelien (Laatokan Karjala) 8.-
14. Juni 1930. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 7:85-.

Kotilainen, M. 1944: Fennoskandian kasvimaantieteellisestŠ kaakkoisrajasta
ja postarkeisten kerrostumien kasvimaantieteellisestŠ merkityksestŠ
Suomessa. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 19:117-136.

Kotilainen, M. 1944: Promemoria Fennoskandian kasvimaantieteellisestŠ
kaakkoisrajasta ja samalla Aunuksen Karjalan (Kol) etelŠrajasta Aunuksen
kannaksella. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 19:180-192.

Kotilainen, M. 1944: †ber Flora und Vegetation der basischen Felsen im
šstlichen Fennskandien. Floristische, škologische und soziologische Studie
I. - Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 20 (1):1-199.

Kotilainen, M. 1944: Kasvit erikoislaatuisen substraatin indikaattoreina. -
Soc. Scient. Fenn. rsbok XXIIB (6):1-18.

Kotilainen, M. 1945: ItŠisiŠ piirteitŠ UksjŠrven (€K) kasvistossa ja
kasvillisuudessa. - Luonnon YstŠvŠ 49:190-191.

Kotiranta, H. & NiemelŠ, T. 1996: Uhanalaiset kŠŠvŠt Suomessa.
YmpŠristšopas no. 10: 1-184. Suomen ympŠristškeskus. Summary in english.

Koutaniemi, L.  1993: PaanajŠrven Kansallispuisto. - PaanajŠrvi-Oulanka
SŠŠtiš. Kuusamo. 159 s.

Kravchenko, A.V. & Kryshen, A.M. 1995: Materials on the flora and
vegetation of the Western Archipelago in Lake Ladoga. -  Floristic research
in Karelia. Petrozavodsk. (in Russian)

Kravchenko, A.V. & Kuznetsov, O.L. 1993: Rare and threatened higher
vascular plants of Karelia. -  Green world of Karelia and problems of it«s
protection:43-56. Petrozavodsk. (in Russian)

Kravchenko, A.V. & Sozonov, S.V. 1995: The concept of a biosphere reserve
in the Republic of Karelia, Russia. -  Hokkanen, T.J. & Ieshko, E. :
Karelian biosphere reserve studies:57-59. Joensuu.

Kurimo, H. 1982: Ice-lobe formation and function during the deglaciation in
Finland and adjacent Soviet Karelia. - Boreas 11:59-78.

Kuznetsov, O.L. 1985: Stratigrafia i khimicheskie svoistva torfjanyh
zalezhey aapa bolot Karelii. -  Geologia i svoistva torfjanikh i
sapropelevikh mestorozhdeniy: 19-27. Kalinin. (in Russian)

Kuznetsov, O.L. 1986: The structure and age of ridge-hollow aapa mire
complexes. - Univ. Joensuu Publications of Karelian Institute 79:73-79.

Kuznetsov, O.L. 1988: Klassifikatsija torfjanyh zaleshej Karelii. - 
Lopatin, V.D.: Bolotnye ekosistemy Evropejskogo Severa: 143-163.
Petrozavodsk. (in Russian)

Kuznetsov, O.L. & Elina, G.A. 1982: Bolota severo-zapodnoi Karelii i
istoria ikh formirovanija. -  Kompleksnie issledovanija rastitelnosti bolot
Karelii: 13-28. Petrozavodsk. (in Russian)

Kuznetsov, O.L. & Maksimov, A.I. 1995: Mire ecosystems of the western part
of the SuojŠrvi region (Republic of Karelia). -  Hokkanen, T.J. & Ieshko,
E. : Karelian biosphere reserve studies: 249-255. Joensuu.

Kytšniemi, A. 1944: Kasvitietoja KarhumŠestŠ (€K). - Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo
20 (Notulae):35-39.

Laine, J. & Vasander, H. 1989: Suotyypit - KirjayhtymŠ. Helsinki.

Lampio, T. 1945: Uhtuan etelŠ-, lŠnsi- ja pohjoispuolen linnustosta. -
Ornis Fennica 22 (2): 45-56.

Lavrova, M.A. 1960: Chetvertichnaya geologiya Kolskogo poluostrova. -
Izdatelstvo AN SSSR, Moskova. 234 s. (in Russian)

Lavrova, M.A. 1969: Pozdnelednikovaya istoriya Belogo morya. Poslednii
lednikovyi pokrov na severo-zapade Evropeiskoi chasti SSSR. - Izdatelstvo
Nauka, Moskova:267-275. (in Russian)

Legkova, V.G. & Mozaev, B.N.  1977: Geomorfologiya Karelii i Kolskogo
poluostrova. - Nedra, Leningrad. 141 s. (in Russian)

Lehtonen, L. 1943: PiirteitŠ Pohjois- ja Keski-Vienan linnustosta. - Ornis
fennica 20 (2-3):33-58.

Lindberg, H. 1895: NŒgra fšr finska floraomrŒdet nya fanerogamer. - Medd.
Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 21.

Lindberg, H. 1896: Potamogeton sparganifolius frŒn Karelska nŠset. - Medd.
Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 22.

Lindberg, H. 1914: AnmŠrkningsvŠrda vŠxtfynd gjorda under en resa sommaren
1913 genom KuolajŠrvi till KnjŠsha vid Hvita hafvet samt vid Kandalakscha.
- Medd. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 40:18-28.

Lindholm, T., HeikkilŠ, R. & HeikkilŠ M 1997: Ecosystems, fauna and flora
of the Finnish-Russian Nature Reserve Friendship. Finnish Environment
Institute 124.

Linkola, K. 1916: Studien Ÿber den Einfluss der Kultur auf die Flora in den
Gegenden nšrdlich vom Ladogasee. I. Allgemeiner Teil. - Acta Soc. F. Fl.
Fenn. 45 (1):1-429.

Linkola, K. 1916: Rikaskasvistoinen seutu Salmin salolla. - Luonnon YstŠvŠ.

Linkola, K. 1916: Studien Ÿber den Einfluss der Kultur auf die Flora in den
Gegenden nšrdlich vom Ladogasee. II. Spezieller Teil. - Acta Soc. F. Fl.
Fenn. 45 (2):1-491.

Linkola, K. 1931: †ber die HauptzŸge der Vegetation und Flora in den
Gegenden nšrdlich vom Ladogasee. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 7:68-84.

Lounamaa, J. 1961: Untersuchungen Ÿber die eutrophen Moore des TulemajŠrvi-
Gebietes im sŸdwestlichen Ostkarelien, KaSSR. - Ann. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn.
Vanamo 32 (3):1-63.

Lounamaa, J. 1963: Zur Kenntnis der Flora und Vegetation der Moore des
SŠŠmŠjŠrvi-Gebietes in Onega-Karelien, KaSSR. - Arch. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn.
Vanamo 18:14-40.

Lukashov, A., Ilyin, V. & Ekman, I. 1981: Marginal glacial formations of
the SalpausselkŠ stage in Soviet Karelia. -  Glacial deposits and glacial
history in eastern Fennoscandia; Academy of Sciences of the USSR: 128-139.
Apatity. (in Russian)

Lukashov, A.D. & Rukoshev, S.I. 1981: Stroenie Pyaozersko-Kuitinskogo polya
drumlinov v severo-zapadnoi chasti Karelii. - Issledovanie razvitiya
Skandinavskogo lednikovogo pokrova na territorii SSSR Kolskii filial
Akademii Nauk SSSR: 51-62. (in Russian)

Lukkala, O.J. 1919: Viljavan maa-alan jakautumisesta etenkin Savossa ja
Karjalassa. - Doctoral thesis. Helsinki.

Lumiala, O.V. 1937: KasvimaantieteellisiŠ ja pintamorfologisia
suotutkimuksia Luoteis-Karjalassa. - Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 10 (1):1-115.

Luther, H. 1954: Fennoskandiens grŠns i Vita havet. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl.
Fenn. 29:7-23.

Mannerkorpi, P. 1943: Muistiinpanoja Uhtuan suunnan kasvillisuudesta. -
Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 18 (Notulae):19-32.

Mannerkorpi, P. 1946: Gentiana pneumonanthe L. ja KŠkisalmen
aavarantakasvillisuus. - Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 21 (3):1-42.

Medvedev, N.V. & Sazonov, S.V. 1994: Aquatic and subaquatic birds of Valaam
and western Archipelagoes in Lake Ladoga. - Russian Ornithological Journal
3 (1):71-81. (in Russian)

Merikallio, E. 1921: Oulangan seudun ja Kaakkois-KuolajŠrven linnusto. -
Acta Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 48 (2):1-168.

Morozova, R.M., Volodin, A.M., Fedorchenko, M.V., Volodina, G.T. &
Nesterenko, I.M. 1981: Potsvy Karelii. - Petrozavodsk. 192 s. (in Russian)

Neustadt, M.I. 1968: Prinzipien zur Rayonierung der Moore in der UdSSR. -
Ann. Acad. Scient. Fenn. ser. A  III 89:1-29.

Nikolski, P.N. & Isotov, I.I. 1936: Otscherk rastitelnosti polosy vdol
Parandovo-Rugoserskogo trakta (Karelija). - Geobotanika 3:307-393. (in
Russian)

Norrlin, J.P. 1871: Flora Kareliae onegensis I. - Notiser Soc. F. Fl. Fenn.
XIII, ny serie X.

Norrlin, J.P. 1871: Om Onega-Karelens vegetation och Finlands jemte
Skandinaviens naturhistoriska grŠns i šster. - Akad. Afhandling. 132 s.

Norrlin, J.P. 1878: Symbolae ad floram Ladogensi-Kareliam. - Medd. Soc. F.
Fl. Fenn. 2:1-34.

Norrlin, J.P. 1923: Flora Kareliae onegensis I. †ber die Vegetation der
Onega-Karelien und die naturgeschichtliche Grenze Finnlands sowie
Skandinaviens im Osten. - Acta Forestalia Fennica 23:53-161.

Nylander, W. 1852: Collectanea in Floram Karelicam. - Notiser SŠllsk. F.
Fl. Fenn. Fšrh. 2:109-181, 183-201.

PalmŽn, E. 1943: Zur Kenntnis der Flora und Vegetation eines Uferabschnitts
am Laatokkasee nšrdlich der SyvŠri-MŸndung. - Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 19
(2):1-93.

Pankakoski, A. 1939: Ekologis-kasvistollisia tutkimuksia HiisjŠrven
luonnonpuistossa. - Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 10 (3):1-154.

Perttula, U. 1942: Tykkimies-botanisti Aunukseen tutustumassa kesŠsodassa
1941. - Luonnon YstŠvŠ 46:136-142.

Perttula, U. 1944: SyvŠrin Juksovan seudun kasvillisuudesta. - Ann. Bot.
Soc. Vanamo 20 (Notulae):1-31.

Perttula, U. 1944: Tietoja erŠiden kasvilajien lšytšpaikoista AK- ja €K-
maakunnissa. - Luonnon YstŠvŠ 48:4.

Perttula, U. 1950: Kasvillisuudesta ylisellŠ SyvŠrillŠ sekŠ siihen etelŠssŠ
rajoittuvalla Juksovan seudulla. - Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 23 (6):1-204.

Pesola, V. 1917: Kertomus kasvitieteellisestŠ tutkimusmatkasta Laatokan
pohjoispuolisiin seutuihin. - Medd. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 43:184-188.

Pesola, V. 1919: Kertomus kasvitieteellisestŠ tutkimusmatkasta Laatokan
Karjalassa kesŠllŠ 1918. - Medd. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 45:73-77.

Pesola, V. 192X: Kalsiumkarbonaatti kasvimaantieteellisenŠ tekijŠnŠ
Suomessa. - Vanamon julkaisuja 9 (1):1-245.

Pesola, V. 1955: †ber die Vegetation der Moore und feuchten Wiesen im
Norden Kuusamos und SŸdwesten Sallas in Nordfinnland. - Acta Soc. F. Fl.
Fenn. 72 (18):1-25.

Pohjala, L. 1933: €yrŠpŠŠnjŠrven vesikasvillisuudesta. - Ann. Bot. Soc.
Vanamo 3 (3):1-114.

Pojarkova, A.I.  1959: Flora Murmanskoj Oblasti. IV. - Akad. Nauk. Moskova,
Leningrad. 394 s. (in Russian)

Pojarkova, A.I. 1966: Flora Murmanskoj oblasti. V. - Akad. Nauk. Moskova,
Leningrad. 549 s.

Punkari, M. 1981: Neuvosto-Karjalan glasiaalimorfologinen ja
glasiodynaaminen tulkinta Landsat-satelliittikuvia kŠyttŠen. - Pro-
gradutyš. Helsingin yliopiston maantieteen laitos. 75 s.

Punkari, M. 1982: Glacial geomorphology and dynamics in the eastern parts
of the Baltic shield interpreted using Landsat imagery. - The
Photogrammetric Journal of Finland 9:77-93.

Punkari, M. 1984: The relations between glacial dynamics and tills in the
eastern part of the Baltic shield. - Striae 20:49-54.

Punkari, M. 1985: Glacial geomorphology and dynamics in Soviet Karelia
interpreted by means of satellite imagery. - Fennia 163:113-153.

Pushkina, N.M. 1960: Estestvennoe vozobnovlenie rastitelnosti na lesnyh
garjah. -  Trudy Laplandskogo gos. Zapovednika. Vyp. 3:5-126. (in Russian)

Pyykkš, J. et al. 1996: Survey in Russian Karelian Natural Forests in
Vienansalo. - WWF Finland October 1996.

Ramenskaja, M.L. 1960: Opredelitel vysshih rastenij Karelii. -
Petrozavodsk. 485 s. (in Russian)

Ramenskaja, M.L. 1983: Analiz flory Murmanskoj oblasti i Karelii. -
Leningrad. 216 s. (In Russian)

Ramenskaja, M.L. & Andrejeva, V.N. 1982: Opredelitel vysshih rastenij
Murmanskoj oblasti i Karelii. - Nauka. Leningrad. 435 s. (in Russian)

Ramsay, W. 1898: †ber die geologische Entwicklung der Halbinsel Kola in der
QuartŠrzeit. - Fennia 16 (1):1-151.

Ramsay, W. 1902: Om ett sannolikt fynd av kambrisk lera i Viborgs lŠn. -
Fennia 19.

Ramsay, W. 1906: BeitrŠge zur Geologie der prŠkambrischen Bildungen im
Gouvernement Olonez I. - Fennia 24.

The Red Data List of Eastern Fennoscandia, 1997. Preliminary version.

Rosberg, J.E. 1892: Ytbildningar i ryska och finska Karelen med sŠrskild
hŠnsyn till de karelska randmorŠnerna. - Fennia 7 (2). 122 s.

Rosberg, J.E. 1899: Ytbildningar i Karelen med sŠrskild hŠnsyn till
ŠndmorŠnerna. II. - Fennia 14 (7). 71 s.

RŠsŠnen, V. 1939: Die Flechtenflora der nšrdlichen KŸstengegend am
Laatokka-See. - Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 12 (1):1-240.

RŠsŠnen, V. 1944: Kurkijoen ja sen naapuripitŠjien putkilokasvisto. -
Kuopion LuonnonystŠvien Yhdistyksen Julkaisuja B2:2.

Sazonov, S.V. 1992: On the regional concept of forming the network of
protected nature territories. -  Ecologic-economic aspects in organizing
national, nature and landscape parks: 5-7. Jekaterinburg. (in Russian)

Sazonov, S.V. 1995: Ornithofauna of the PaanajŠrvi National Park. -
Petrozavodsk.

Schljakov, R.N. & Konstantinova, N.A. 1982: Konspekt flory mohoobratsnyh
Murmanskoj oblasti. - Akad. Nauk SSSR. Apatity. 228 s. (in Russian)

Shevelin, P.F. & Tokarev, P.N. 1995: Mires in the surroundings of Lake
Tuulos (West Karelia, Russia). -  Hokkanen, T.J. & Ieshko, E. : Karelian
biosphere reserve studies:257-263. Joensuu.

Sokolov, V.A.  1987: Geologija Karelii. - Nauka, Leningrad. 231 s. (in
Russian)

Sokolova, L.A. 1936: Rastitelnost raiona Louchi-Kestengskogo trakta
(Karelija). - Geobotanika 3:241-306. (in Russian)

Solonevits, K.H. 1933: Geobotanicheski otscherk raiona sapadnoi tschasti
Kemj-Uchtinskogo trakta (Karelija). - Geobotanika 1:53-85. (in Russian)

Solonevits, K.H. & Solonevits, N.G. 1936: Geobotanicheski otscherk raiona
meshdu stantsijami Kivats i Kjappeselga Kirovskoi sh. d. (Karelija). -
Geobotanika 3:345-459.

Sparre, B. 1945: Anteckningar om floran pŒ halvšn Arsenavolok I FjŠrr-
Karelen. - Mem. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 20:17-23.

Systra, Y. 1991: The tectonics of Karelian region. - Nauka, St Petersburg.
176 s.

Systra, Y. 1997: PaanajŠrven Kansallispuisto. - Luonnonsuojelu itŠisessŠ
Suomessa ja Karjalan tasavallassa. Ekologinen tiedote nro 2: 35-38.

Sšyrinki, N. 1942: Vienan kasviaarteistoja katsomassa. - Suomen Luonto:28-
35.

Sšyrinki, N. 1942: Oikaisuja ja lisŠyksiŠ Kiestingin kasviluetteloon. -
Luonnon YstŠvŠ 46:70.

Sšyrinki, N. 1943: Jalavalajien levinneisyydestŠ ItŠ-Karjalassa. - Luonnon
YstŠvŠ 47 (4).

Sšyrinki, N. 1956: Kasvistosta Oulankajoen-PŠŠjŠrven alueella Kieretin
Karjalassa. - Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 27 (2):1-118.

Tanner, V. 1915: Studier šfver kvartŠrsystemet i Fennoskandias nordliga
delar. - Fennia 36. 815 s.

Tuomikoski, R. 1933: SuojŠrven Paperon kasvisto. - Luonnon YstŠvŠ 37 (3).

Tuomikoski, R. 1934: HiisjŠrven luonnonpuiston borealisista sammalista. -
Luonnon YstŠvŠ 38:102-103.

Tuomikoski, R. 1935: HiisjŠrven luonnonpuiston sammalkasvisto. - Acta Soc.
F. Fl. Fenn. 58 (1):1-26.

Tuomikoski, R. 1938: Carex acutiformis Ehrh. Suistamossa. - Luonnon YstŠvŠ
42 (6).

Tuomikoski, R. 1939: Materialen zu einer Laubmoosflora des Kuusamo-
Gebietes. - Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 12 (4):1-124.

Volkov, A.D., Gromtsev, A.N. & Yerukov, G.V. et al. 1990: Ekosistemy
landshaftov zapada srednej tajgi (struktura, dinamika). - Karelskij
nautsnyj tsentr Rossijskoj Akademii Nauk. Petrozavodsk. 284 s. (in Russian)

Volkov, A.D., Gromtsev, A.N. & Yerukov, G.V. et al. 1995: Ekosistemy
landshaftov zapada severnoj tajgi (struktura, dinamika). - Karelskij
nautsnyj tsentr Rossijskoj Akademii Nauk. Petrozavodsk. 260 s. (in Russian)

Vuorinen, J. 1944: Aunuksen Karjalan maaperŠstŠ. - Maatalous 2-3.

WaaramŠki, T. 1945: ErŠitŠ lintutietoja Kuusamosta vuosilta 1934-36, 1937-
39 ja 1941-43. - Ornis Fennica 22:17-21.

Wahl, W. 1908: PrŠkambrishe Bildungen im Gouvernement Olonez. - Fennia 24.

Wahl, W. 1908: BeitrŠge zur Geologie der prŠkambrischen Bildungen im
Gouvernement Olonez. II. Die gesteine der WestkŸste des Onega-Sees. -
Fennia 24 (3):1-94.

Wainio, E.A. 1878: Kasvistonsuhteista Pohjais-Suomen ja VenŠjŠn-Karjalan
rajaseuduilla. - Medd. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 4:1-161.

Yurkovskaja, T.K. 1971: Skhema bolotnogo raionirovaniya severnoi Karelii. - 
Ocherki po rastitelnomu pokrovu Karelskoi ASSR: 177-193. Petrozavodsk. (in
Russian)

Yurkovskaja, T.K. 1993: Rastitelnyj pokrov Karelii. -  Elina, G. & Volkov,
A. : Rastitelnyj mir Karelii i problemi ego okhrani: 8-36. Karelskij
nautsnyj tsentr. Petrozavodsk. (in Russian)

Zemljakov, B.F. 1936: Chetvertichnaja geologija Karelii. - Izdatelstvo
Karelskogo NII, Petrozavodsk. 103 s. (in Russian)

Zimin, V.B., Sazonov, S.V., Artemyev, A.V., Annenkov, V.G. & Markovsky,
V.A. 1995: The terrestrial vertebrate fauna of the area of Lake TolvajŠrvi,
SuojŠrvi district (Republic of Karelia, Russia). -  Hokkanen, T.J. &
Ieshko, E. : Karelian biosphere reserve studies: 227-233. Joensuu.

APPENDIX

Map 1. The location of the survey areas.

Map 2. The moratorium area around PaanajŠrvi National Park. Scale 1:400
000.

Subareas I - V surveyed in summer 1997. 

Map 3. The northern part of the moratorium area in Viena Karelia. Scale
1:400 000.

Subareas I, VIII and IX surveyed in summer 1997.

Map 4. The southern part of the moratorium area in Viena Karelia. Scale
1:400 000.

Subareas I - VII surveyed in summer 1997.

Map 5. Vuoksa area proposed to be inventoried. Scale 1:200 000.

The Vuoksa and VorobÕevo areas surveyed in summer 1997.